{ "abrus-precatorius": { "heading": "Toxin", "text": "The toxin abrin is a dimer consisting of two protein subunits, termed A and B. The B chain facilitates abrin's entry into a cell by bonding to certain transport proteins on cell membranes, which then transport the toxin into the cell. Once inside the cell, the A chain prevents protein synthesis by inactivating the 28S RNA of the ribosome. One molecule of abrin will inactivate up to 1,500 ribosomes per second. \nSymptoms are identical to those of ricin, except abrin is more toxic by almost two orders of magnitude; the fatal dose of abrin is approximately 1/75 that of the fatal dose of ricin (though the abrin in ingested seeds may be absorbed much more slowly than the ricin in Ricinus communis even if the seeds are chewed and the coat penetrated, allowing time for successful rescue efforts in at least some cases.) Abrin has an LD50 of only 0.56 μg/kg in mice, and Kingsbury lists a toxic dose in humans at 0.00015% body weight, or approximately 0.1 mg for a 68 kg (150 lb) human. Ingesting intact seeds may result in no clinical findings, as they can pass undigested through the gastrointestinal tract because of their hard shell.\nThis plant is also poisonous to horses.\nSymptoms of poisoning include nausea, vomiting, convulsions, liver failure, and death, usually after several days.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrus_precatorius" }, "achillea-millefolium": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Yarrow can cause allergic skin rashes.\nAccording to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, yarrow is toxic to dogs, cats, and horses, causing increased urination, vomiting, diarrhea and dermatitis. When consumed by cows, an unfavorable flavor is given to their milk.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achillea_millefolium" }, "aconitum-spp": { "heading": "Toxicology", "text": "Members of the genus Aconitum contain substantial amounts of highly toxic alkaloids (such as aconitine, mesaconitine, and pseudaconitine), especially in their roots and tubers. Ingestion of as little as 2 mg of aconitine or 1 g of plant material may cause death from respiratory paralysis or heart failure.\nMild to severe toxicity may be experienced from skin contact. Symptoms such as numbness and tingling and feelings of coldness in the face and extremities usually appear within one hour of exposure, and sometimes almost immediately. Other features may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, dizziness, difficulty in breathing, headache, and confusion. In severe poisoning, sensations of tingling and numbness spreads to the limbs, and pronounced motor weakness occurs. Cardiovascular features include low blood pressure and abnormal heart rhythm. Death usually occurs within two to six hours in fatal poisoning.\nTreatment of poisoning involves close monitoring of blood pressure and cardiac rhythm. Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal can be used if administered within an hour or so of ingestion. Drugs such as atropine, lidocaine, and amiodarone may be used to treat dysrhythmias. Cardiopulmonary bypass, Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, and hemoperfusion may be useful if symptoms are refractory to treatment with these drugs.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aconitum" }, "actaea-rubra": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant are poisonous. However, accidental poisoning is not likely since the berries are extremely bitter.\nThe berries are the most toxic part of the plant. A healthy adult will experience poisoning from as few as six berries. Ingestion of the berries causes nausea, dizziness, increased pulse and severe gastrointestinal discomfort. The toxins can also have an immediate sedative effect on the cardiac muscle tissue possibly leading to cardiac arrest if introduced into the bloodstream. As few as two berries may be fatal to a child.\nThe fruits and foliage contain ranunculin, and are often reported to contain protoanemonin. The plant also contains berberine.\nAll parts of the plant contain an irritant oil that is most concentrated within the roots and berries.\nThe roots contain β-sitosterol glucoside.\nThere have been no reported cases of severe poisoning or deaths in North America, but children have been fatally poisoned by its European relative A. spicata. It is claimed that poisoning is unlikely from eating the fruits of this species also.\nThis plant closely resembles mountain sweetroot (Osmorhiza chilensis), and can be confused with it; however, red baneberry lacks the strong anise-like \"spicy celery\" odor of mountain sweetroot.\nThe following illustrates a non-fatal case of experimental self-intoxication produced by the ingestion of fruit from Actaea rubra.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actaea_rubra" }, "aethusa-cynapium": { "heading": "Chemical composition, toxicity and medical uses", "text": "A. cynapium is poisonous when fresh, but safe if dried. A. cynapium's toxic effects are caused at least in part by cynopine, which resembles coniine in its physical and chemical characters as well as physiological actions. The whole plant is toxic with this alkaloid. Toxins like cynopine are destroyed by drying. A. cynapium also contains trideca-7,9,11-trienoic acid, aethusin, aethusanol A, aethusanol B, as well as flavone glycosides such as rutoside, narcissine, and ascorbic acid.\nThe parts of A. cynapium that grow above the ground are sometimes used to make medicine. The plants has been used in traditional medicine to treat complaints in children, infantile cholera, summer diarrhea, convulsions, mental tension, sleep disorders, delirium, and as stomachic. A. cynapium has actually been shown to cause antianxiety effects in mice because it contains trideca-7,9,11-trienoic acid.\nPoisoning from A. cynapium results in symptoms of heat in the mouth and throat. A post-mortem examination has shown redness of the membrane lining the gullet and windpipe, along with symptoms of slight congestion within the duodenum and stomach. Some toxins are destroyed by drying, and indeed, dried hay containing the plant is not poisonous at all.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethusa_cynapium" }, "ageratina-altissima": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "White snakeroot contains the toxin tremetol; when the plants are consumed by cattle, the meat and milk become contaminated with the toxin. When milk or meat containing the toxin is consumed, the poison is passed on to humans. If consumed in large enough quantities, it can cause tremetol poisoning in humans. The poisoning is also called milk sickness, as humans often ingested the toxin by drinking the milk of cows that had eaten snakeroot. Although 80% of the plant's toxin, tremetone, decreases after being dried and stored away for 5 years, its toxic properties remain the same.\n\nDuring the early 19th century, when large numbers of European Americans from the East, who were unfamiliar with snakeroot, began settling in the plant's habitat of the Midwest and Upper South, many thousands were killed by milk sickness. Notably, milk sickness was possibly the cause of death in 1818 of Nancy Hanks Lincoln, mother of Abraham Lincoln.\nIt was some decades before European Americans traced the cause to snakeroot, although today Dr. Anna Pierce Hobbs Bixby is credited with identifying the plant in the 1830s. Legend has it that she was taught about the plant's properties by a Shawnee woman.\nIn addition to cattle, the plants are also poisonous to horses, goats, and sheep. Signs of poisoning in these animals include depression and lethargy, placement of hind feet close together (horses, goats, cattle) or held far apart (sheep), nasal discharge, excessive salivation, arched body posture, and rapid or difficult breathing.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageratina_altissima" }, "aglaonema-modestum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "This plant contains calcium oxalate crystals which are poisonous to humans, dogs, cats, and horses. If ingested, it may cause severe burning and swelling in the mouth and tongue. Contact with the sap may also cause skin irritation.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aglaonema_modestum" }, "agrostemma-githago": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant are poisonous and contain githagin (ribosome-inactivating proteins) and saponins. It has been used in folk medicine despite the risk of fatal poisoning.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrostemma_githago" }, "aleurites-moluccana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Because the seeds contain saponin, phorbol, and toxalbumins, they are mildly toxic when raw, inducing a laxative effect. Heat treatment reduces the toxicity of the protein component.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleurites_moluccanus" }, "alliaria-petiolata": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Young first-year garlic mustard plants contain up to 100 ppm cyanide, a level which is toxic to many vertebrates. Once the plant is chopped up, the cyanide gas is eliminated.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliaria_petiolata" }, "allium-cepa": { "heading": "Adverse effects and toxicity", "text": "Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling onions. Symptoms can include contact dermatitis, intense itching, rhinoconjunctivitis, blurred vision, bronchial asthma, sweating, and anaphylaxis. Allergic reactions may not occur when eating cooked onions, possibly due to the denaturing of the proteins from cooking.\n\nFreshly cut onions can produce a stinging sensation in the eyes of people nearby and often uncontrollable tears. This is caused by the release of a volatile liquid, syn-propanethial-S-oxide and its aerosol, which stimulates nerves in the eye. This gas is produced by a chain of reactions which serve as a defence mechanism: chopping an onion causes damage to cells which releases enzymes called alliinases. These break down amino acid sulfoxides and generate sulfenic acids. A specific sulfenic acid, 1-propenesulfenic acid, is rapidly acted on by a second enzyme, the lacrimatory factor synthase (LFS), producing the syn-propanethial-S-oxide. This gas diffuses through the air and soon reaches the eyes, where it activates sensory neurons. Lacrimal glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant. Eye irritation can be minimised by cutting onions under running water or submerged in a basin of water. Leaving the root end intact also reduces irritation as the onion base has a higher concentration of sulphur compounds than the rest of the bulb.\n\nThe amount of sulfenic acids and lacrimal factor released and the irritation effect differs among Allium species. In 2008, the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research created \"no tears\" onions by genetic modification to prevent the synthesis of lachrymatory factor synthase in onions. One study suggests that consumers prefer the flavour of onions with lower LFS content.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allium_cepa" }, "allium-sativum": { "heading": "Adverse effects and toxicology", "text": "The scent of garlic is known to linger upon the human body and cause bad breath (halitosis) and body odor. This is caused by allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth, causing garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward. Plain water, mushrooms, and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective.\nAbundant sulfur compounds in garlic are also responsible for turning garlic green or blue during pickling and cooking. Under these conditions (i.e., acidity, heat) the sulfur-containing compound alliin reacts with common amino acids to make pyrroles, clusters of carbon-nitrogen rings. These rings can be linked together into polypyrrole molecules. Ring structures absorb particular wavelengths of light and thus appear colored. The two-pyrrole molecule looks red, the three-pyrrole molecule looks blue, and the four-pyrrole molecule looks green (like chlorophyll, a tetrapyrrole). Like chlorophyll, the pyrrole pigments are safe to eat.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allium_sativum" }, "aloe-vera": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Orally ingested non-decolorized aloe vera leaf extract was listed by the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment among \"chemicals known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity\", possibly resulting from the anthraquinones.\nSince 2016, aloe vera whole leaf extract is classified as a possible human carcinogen (group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.\nUse of aloe vera on the skin is generally not associated with significant side effects. Oral ingestion of aloe vera is potentially toxic, and may cause abdominal cramps and diarrhea which in turn can decrease the absorption of drugs.\n\nIngested aloe products may have adverse interactions with prescription drugs, such as those used to treat blood clots, diabetes, heart disease and potassium-lowering agents (such as digoxin), and diuretics, among others.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloe_vera" }, "amaryllis-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Amaryllis belladonna is toxic to humans and to domestic animals, including dogs, cats, and horses. In animals, poisoning usually follows ingestion of the plant, particularly the bulbs. The toxic effects are associated with alkaloids, especially lycorine; several phenanthridine alkaloids have been identified in its leaves, stems, and bulbs, with the bulbs consistently described as the most hazardous part of the plant. In humans, ingestion is reported to cause vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, hypersalivation, and tremors. In animals, reported signs include vomiting, excessive salivation, diarrhea, abdominal pain, respiratory difficulty, ataxia, seizures, and hypotension after larger exposures.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaryllis" }, "amianthium-muscaetoxicum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Amianthium muscitoxicum contains toxic alkaloids, and as such, is highly poisonous when ingested by livestock, humans and other animals. Four toxic alkaloids were isolated from the plant in 1953: jervine, two unknown ester alkaloids, and amianthine (an alkamine). These compounds are found in all parts of the plant, with especially high concentrations in the bulbs.\nHistorical experiments tested the toxicity on sheep and cattle. Observed symptoms included cessation of eating and excess production of saliva, nausea followed by vomiting, rapid pulse, rapid and irregular respiration, weakness, and difficulty walking. When fatal, death occurred in about an hour. This is the origin for \"stagger grass\" as a common name for this plant.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amianthium" }, "anthemis-cotula": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Anthemis cotula is potentially toxic to dogs, cats, horses, and guinea pigs. Clinical signs include contact dermatitis, vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, and allergic reactions. Long term use can lead to bleeding tendencies. The foliage may also cause skin irritation.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthemis_cotula" }, "anthemis-nobilis": { "heading": "Adverse effects", "text": "Chamomile is likely unsafe for use during pregnancy, and its topical use for skin disorders may cause contact dermatitis. Consuming chamomile tea may adversely affect anticoagulant drugs.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthemis_nobilis" }, "apocynum-cannabinum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "It is poisonous to humans, dogs, cats, and horses. All parts of the plant are toxic and contain cardiac glycosides. The plant is toxic both green and dried. The stems contain a white sap capable of causing skin blisters.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocynum_cannabinum" }, "araujia-sericifera": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Moth plant is toxic for some people. Skin contact with its sap can cause rashes. Contact with the eyes, in particular, can cause severe discomfort.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araujia_sericifera" }, "arctium-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The green, above-ground portions may cause contact dermatitis in individual with allergies as the plant contains lactones.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctium" }, "arisaema-triphyllum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The oxalic acid in jack-in-the-pulpit is poisonous if ingested. The plant contains calcium oxalate crystals as raphides in all parts, and because of this, consumption of the raw plant material results in a powerful burning sensation. It can cause irritation of the mouth and digestive system and (on rare occasions) intense swelling of the mouth and throat, potentially being severe enough to affect breathing. Arisaemas are in the same plant family as the anthuriums, aglaonemas, alocasias, colocasias, dieffenbachias, monsteras and philodendrons (among numerous others)— all known as \"dumb-canes\"—and carry the shared side-effect of an inflamed upper respiratory/digestive system upon ingestion.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arisaema_triphyllum" }, "aristolochia-spp": { "heading": "Herbalism, toxicity and carcinogenicity", "text": "The species Aristolochia clematitis was highly regarded as a medicinal plant since the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and on until the Early Modern era; it also plays a role in traditional Chinese medicine. Due to its resemblance to the uterus, the doctrine of signatures held that birthwort was useful in childbirth. A preparation was given to women upon delivery to expel the placenta, as noted by the herbalist Dioscurides in the 1st century AD. Despite its presence in ancient medicine, Aristolochia is known to contain the lethal toxin aristolochic acid.\nThe Bencao Gangmu, compiled by Li Shi-Zhen in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was based on the author's experience and on data obtained from earlier herbals; this Chinese herbal classic describes 1892 \"drugs\" (with 1110 drawings), including many species of Aristolochia. For 400 years, the Bencao Gangmu remained the principal source of information in traditional Chinese medicine and the work was translated into numerous languages, reflecting its influence in countries other than China. In the mid-twentieth century, the Bencao Gangmu was replaced by modern Materia Medica, the most comprehensive source being Zhong Hua Ben Cao (Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica), published in 1999. The Encyclopedia lists 23 species of Aristolochia, though with little mention of toxicity. The Chinese government currently lists the following Aristolochia herbs: A. manshuriensis (stems), A. fangchi (root), A. debilis (root and fruit), and A.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristolochia" }, "arum-maculatum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant can produce allergic reactions in many people and the plant should be handled with care.\nThe attractive berries are extremely poisonous to many animals, including humans, but harmless to birds, which eat them and propagate the seeds. They contain oxalates of saponins, which have needle-shaped crystals that irritate the skin, mouth, tongue, and throat, and result in swelling of throat, difficulty breathing, burning pain, and upset stomach. However, their acrid taste, coupled with the almost immediate tingling sensation in the mouth when consumed, means that large amounts are rarely taken and serious harm is unusual. It is one of the most common causes of accidental plant poisoning based on attendance at hospital emergency departments.\nThere is no known antidote to A. maculatum poisoning. Airway management may reduce the mortality, and aggressive fluid administration may prevent renal injury.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arum_maculatum" }, "arum-palaestinum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The species is toxic at low doses, and this has traditionally been considered to be due to oxalate salts, but this is not certain. The leaves of the plant contain calcium oxalate and other toxins that can be removed by leaching.\nThe symptoms caused by exposure to the raw plant include mucous membrane irritation, and burning, and consuming larger doses causes nausea, diarrhea, and cramping. Because exposure to skin can cause irritation it is often handled lightly, or with gloves. Eating even a tiny amount raw will cause numbness in the tongue and mouth.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arum_palaestinum" }, "asclepias-tuberosa": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant contains toxic progesterone-like steroids that can cause weakness, seizures and corneal injuries. Use of the plant as an herbal remedy is contraindicated in pregnancy, during lactation or for infants and children.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asclepias_tuberosa" }, "asparagus-setaceus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Asparagus setaceus is toxic to many domestic animals, including dogs and cats, and if they ingest the berries, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain and allergic dermatitis may result. The toxic agent within the plant is sapogenin, a naturally occurring steroid.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparagus_setaceus" }, "atropa-belladonna": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Deadly nightshade is one of the most toxic plants known, and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such as complications of pregnancy, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and psychiatric disorders, among others. All parts of the plant contain tropane alkaloids; roots have up to 1.3%, leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period. The nectar is used by bees to make honey that also contains tropane alkaloids. The berries pose the greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste. The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another.\nThe active agents in deadly nightshade, atropine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and hyoscyamine, have anticholinergic properties. The symptoms of poisoning include dilated pupils, sensitivity to light, blurred vision, tachycardia, loss of balance, staggering, headache, rash, flushing, severely dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention, constipation, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, and convulsions. In 2009, A. bella-donna berries were mistaken for blueberries by an adult woman; the six berries she ate were documented to result in severe anticholinergic syndrome. The deadly symptoms are caused by disruption by the atropine of the parasympathetic nervous system's ability to regulate involuntary activities, such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atropa_belladonna" }, "berteroa-incana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant is toxic to horses. Green and dry material is sometimes found in alfalfa feed. Signs of poisoning include lameness due to laminitis and leg edema, stiffness, fever, diarrhea, intravascular hemolysis, hypovolemic shock, premature birth, abortion, gut ulceration, edema of the kidneys, pulmonary edema, and calcium crystals in the urine. It can be fatal, but most horses survive with treatment. The toxic compound is not known.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berteroa_incana" }, "borago-officinalis": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "In addition to the liver-toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) found in the leaves and seed oil, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment has advised that honey from borage contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, transferred to the honey through pollen collected from the flowers, and recommends that commercial honey production select for raw honey with limited PA content to prevent contamination.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borage" }, "brunfelsia-spp": { "heading": "Chemistry and Toxicity", "text": "Like many other species belonging to the Solanaceae, some (possibly all) members of this genus contain toxic and medicinal alkaloids. These are known to be poisonous to domestic animals such as cats, dogs, and horses due to their brunfelsamidine content. Toxicity in dogs manifests with strychnine-like gastrointestinal, neurological and cardiac symptoms.\nThe roots of certain Brunfelsia species have been designated as containing compounds hazardous to human health according to a compendium published in 2012 by the European Food Safety Authority. These compounds include indole alkaloids of the β-carboline group such as harmine, tetrahydroharmine, harmaline, manacine, manaceine, and also derivatives of dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and amidines such as pyrrole 3-carboximidamide.\nAccording to early accounts in the literature, symptoms of poisoning by the medicinal species B. grandiflora include dizziness, exhaustion, nausea, hypersalivation, muscle weakness, lethargy, facial nerve paralysis, mouth pains, swollen tongue, numbness in the extremities, paraesthesias (including tingling and feelings of unbearable coldness) tremors, and blurred vision. At higher dose, there are reports of delirium, sustained mental confusion, and possible blindness. Modern reports have compared the experience to the effects of an overdose of nicotine upon non-smokers.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunfelsia" }, "caltha-palustris": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Caltha contains several active substances of which the most important from a toxicological point of view is protoanemonin. Consumption of larger quantities of the plant may cause convulsions, burning of the throat, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, dizziness and fainting. Contact of the skin or mucous membranes with the juices can cause blistering or inflammation, and gastric illness if ingested. Younger parts seem to contain less toxics and heating breaks these substances down. Small amounts of Caltha in hay do not cause problems when fed to husbandry, but larger quantities lead to gastric illness.\nAdditionally, plants that live in raw water may carry toxic organisms which can be neutralized by cooking.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltha_palustris" }, "campsis-radicans": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant can cause contact dermatitis.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campsis_radicans" }, "caulophyllum-thalictroides": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "When used in high doses as an abortifacient, symptoms similar to nicotine poisoning can occur. These are not limited to nausea and emesis, headache, dizziness, muscle fasciculations, tachycardia, tachypnea, hypertension seizure, and respiratory failure.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulophyllum_thalictroides" }, "centaurea-repens": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Nigropallidal encephalomalacia, also called chewing disease, a movement disorder similar to Parkinson's disease, is caused in horses ingesting Russian knapweed for prolonged periods. A sesquiterpene lactone, repin, in the plant is likely responsible for this toxicity.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaponticum_repens" }, "centaurea-solstitialis": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Grazing of the plant by horses can cause nigropallidal encephalomalacia or \"chewing disease\", a neurological condition. The disease generally follows consumption of 60–200% of the horse's body weight over an extended period of a month or more, or 2.3–2.6 kilograms (5.1–5.7 pounds) of star-thistle per 100 kg (220 lb) body weight per day. Though star-thistle is most dangerous when it is the only plant available or is delivered as a contaminant in dried hay, horses may develop a taste for it and seek it out. Many other grazing species, including mules and burros, are not affected.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaurea_solstitialis" }, "chenopodium-ambrosioides": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Humans have died from overdoses of D. ambrosioides essential oils (attributed to the ascaridole content). Symptoms include severe gastroenteritis with pain, vomiting, and diarrhea, dizziness, headache, temporary deafness, kidney and liver damage, convulsions, paralysis, death.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenopodium_ambrosioides" }, "chlorophytum-comosum": { "heading": "Toxicity and effects on pets", "text": "Spider plants are non-toxic to humans and pets, and are considered edible.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophytum_comosum" }, "cicuta-maculata": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The confusion with parsnips can be fatal as C. maculata is extremely poisonous. It is considered to be North America's most toxic native plant. \nCicuta is fatal when swallowed, causing violent and painful convulsions. Though a number of people have died from water hemlock poisoning over the centuries, livestock have long been the worst affected (hence the name \"cowbane\"), with ingestion of the plant causing death in as little as 15 minutes.\nThe chief poison is cicutoxin, an unsaturated aliphatic alcohol that is most concentrated in the roots. Upon human consumption, nausea, vomiting, and tremors occur within 30–60 minutes, followed by severe cramps, projectile vomiting, and convulsions. Occasional long-term effects include retrograde amnesia. Ingestion of water hemlock in any quantity can result in death or permanent damage to the central nervous system.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicuta_maculata" }, "cicuta-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All members of Cicuta contain high levels of the poisonous principle cicutoxin, an unsaturated aliphatic alcohol that is structurally closely related to the toxin oenanthotoxin found in the plant hemlock water dropwort. Cicutoxin is present at all stages of growth and in all parts of the plant, but is most concentrated in the roots which appear to be the most toxic in the early spring. Its primary toxic effect is to act as a stimulant in the central nervous system. It is a non-competitive gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor antagonist. Cicutoxin acts on the GABAA receptor causing a block of the chloride channel which results in neuronal depolarization. In the presence of cicutoxin, this depolarization continues unabated, causing cell overactivity. This hyperactivity in brain cells results in seizures. Cicutoxin is very poisonous, and water hemlock is considered one of North America's most toxic plants. Ingestion of Cicuta can be fatal in humans, and there are reports in medical literature of severe poisoning and death as early as 1670. A number of people have also died following ingestion of the plant in the 20th and 21st century.\nThe LD50 in mice administered cicutoxin by intraperitoneal injection is 48.3 milligrams per kilogram body weight; this compares with 5.9 mg/kg for mice given potassium cyanide by intraperitoneal injection, while the LD50 for arsenic via intraperitoneal injection in mice is 46.2 mg/kg. The exact toxic dose of plant material in humans is unknown; it is thought ingestion of water hemlock in any quantity can result in poisoning, and very small amounts may lead to death. Poisoning has been reported following children blowing whistles made from the hollow stem of water hemlock plants.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicuta" }, "clematis-spp": { "heading": "Use and toxicity", "text": "The European species did not enter into the herbalists' pharmacopeia. In the American Old West, the Western white clematis, Clematis ligusticifolia, was called pepper vine by early travelers and pioneers, who took a tip from Spanish colonials and used seeds and the acrid leaves of yerba de chivato as a pepper substitute. The entire genus contains essential oils and compounds which are extremely irritating to the skin and mucous membranes. Unlike black pepper or Capsicum, however, the compounds in clematis cause internal bleeding of the digestive tract if ingested in large amounts. C. ligusticifolia is essentially toxic. When pruning them, it is a good idea to wear gloves. Despite its toxicity, Native Americans used very small amounts of clematis as an effective treatment for migraine headaches and nervous disorders. It was also used as an effective treatment of skin infections. Clematis is also a constituent of Bach's Rescue Remedy. Leaf extracts from two Ethiopian species (Clematis longicauda steud ex A. Rich. and Clematis burgensis Engl.) are used locally to treat ear disorders and eczema. Phytochemical screening of the extracts from both of these species showed antibacterial and antifungal activity. The extracts of these plants also possess wound healing and anti-inflammatory activities which could also be attributed to the phytoconstituents.\nClematis has been listed as one of the 38 plants used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, \"there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer\".", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clematis" }, "clivia-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some species of Clivia, including Clivia miniata, produce small amounts of the alkaloid lycorine. Lycorine is toxic in sufficient quantities, particularly in pets and small children.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clivia" }, "codiaeum-variegatum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "As with the majority of the spurges, when broken or cut, every part of C. variegatum will \"bleed\" and drip a milky, caustic sap, eventually drying into a latex-like consistency. Care must be taken to avoid touching this latex, such as only handling the plant while wearing sufficiently protective gloves, as well as eye goggles or sunglasses. Generally, small, inadvertent drops of the sap on one's hands or skin will cause no ill effect in the majority of the population, provided it is promptly washed off using soapy, warm water—this may even be followed with the use of a hand sanitizer or even a mildly diluted isopropyl alcohol. However, direct contact between the sap of Euphorbiaceae and the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, genitals, or any open wound, is strongly discouraged and may result in unknown side effects. Complications stemming from sap contact may range from mild to extreme burning pain, itchiness, rash or temporary dulling of the senses; depending on the region of the body affected, this sensory reaction may include temporary or long-term complications with sight, hearing, taste, feeling or smell, among other issues. In certain sensitive-skinned individuals, contact with small amounts of the sap can cause contact dermatitis. The entire plant, including its bark, roots, inflorescences and foliage, is poisonous. The primary alkaloid present is the chemical compound 5-desoxyingenol. The plant contains an oil which is violently purgative and a suspected carcinogen. Consumption of the seeds can be fatal to children and even adults.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codiaeum_variegatum" }, "colchicum-autumnale": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Colchicum is lethally toxic due to its colchicine content. Its leaves have been mistaken by foragers for those of Allium ursinum (ramsons or wild garlic), which they vaguely resemble.\nThis plant (and colchicine itself) poses a particular threat to felines. The corms of meadow saffron contain the highest level of toxins, but all parts of the plant are regarded as poisonous.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colchicum_autumnale" }, "conium-maculatum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant can be poisonous, but the total amount of poisonous alkaloids varies significantly with the age of the plant and between parts. The roots of young, first-year plants contain only traces of poison or none at all. The leaves of seedlings have lower levels of poison than slightly older plants. In the spring of the second year the leaves are highly toxic, though not as poisonous as the flowers or seeds later in the season. The hollow stems remain deadly for up to three years after the plant has died. However, drying causes the plant to lose a large part of its toxic compounds. Plants which grew in sunny conditions can be twice as poisonous as plants that grew in wet and cloudy conditions.\nThe main toxic alkaloids are coniine and γ-coniceine, also called gamma-coniceine. Intoxication is reported in diverse groups of animals including pigs, bovids, turkeys, equines, rabbits, cats, and dogs. However, songbirds are less sensitive and have reportedly become toxic from absorbing the coniine from hemlock. Ingesting more than 150–300 milligrams of coniine, approximately equivalent to six to eight hemlock leaves, can be fatal for adult humans.\nGrazing animals are most likely to be poisoned in the spring when other forage is unavailable. However, they may also be poisoned when hemlock has become mixed into grain, hay, or silage. Poison hemlock ingestion typically induces intense and fatal seizures in cattle. Even very small quantities have been shown to cause birth defects when ingested within 40–100 days of gestation.\nHemlock was one of many plants suggested by medieval writers as a possible cause of coturnism, a disease caused by eating common quail in certain seasons.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conium_maculatum" }, "crassula-argentea": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some sources claim that some species from the Crassulaceae family, including the jade plant, are toxic to horses, cats and dogs, as well as mildly toxic to humans with skin contact, but such claims remain unproven. Crassula ovata is known to be used as medicinal plant in some regions.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassula_argentea" }, "curio-rowleyanus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The vegetation of C. rowleyanus is somewhat poisonous and should not be consumed. In humans the string of pearls plant is rated as toxicity classes 2 and 4 by the University of California, Davis. Class 2 is defined by minor toxicity; ingestion of string of pearls may cause minor illnesses such as vomiting or diarrhea. Class 4 is defined by dermatitis; contact with the plant's sap may cause skin irritation or rash. Likewise, if consumed by animals it can cause vomiting, diarrhea, drooling, skin irritation or lethargy.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curio_rowleyanus" }, "cycas-revoluta": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Cycad sago is extremely poisonous to animals (including humans) if ingested. Pets are at particular risk, since they seem to find the plant very palatable. Clinical symptoms of ingestion will develop within 12 hours, and may include vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, seizures, and liver failure or hepatotoxicity characterized by icterus, cirrhosis, and ascites. The pet may appear bruised, have nose bleeds (epistaxis), melena (blood in the stool), hematochezia (bloody straining), and hemarthrosis (blood in the joints). The ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center estimates a fatality rate of 50 to 75% when ingestion of the sago palm is involved. If any quantity of the plant is ingested, a poison control center or doctor should be contacted immediately. Effects of ingestion can include permanent internal damage and death.\nAll parts of the plant are toxic; however, the seeds contain the highest level of the toxin cycasin. Cycasin causes gastrointestinal irritation, and in high enough doses, leads to liver failure. Other toxins include Beta-methylamino L-alanine, a neurotoxic amino acid, and an unidentified toxin which has been observed to cause hindlimb paralysis in cattle.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycas_revoluta" }, "cynoglossum-amabile": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Cynoglossum amabile contains tumorigenic pyrrolizidine alkaloids such as amabiline.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynoglossum_amabile" }, "daphne-mezerum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Daphne mezereum is very toxic because of the compounds mezerein and daphnin, present especially in the berries and twigs. If poisoned, victims experience a choking sensation. Handling the fresh twigs can cause rashes and eczema in sensitive individuals. Despite this, it is commonly grown as an ornamental plant in gardens for its attractive, scented flowers.\n\nIngestion of plant parts leads within a few hours to severe irritation and a burning sensation in the mouth, with swelling of the lips and face, increased salivation, hoarseness and difficulty in swallowing. These symptoms are soon followed by severe abdominal pain, headache, numbness, nausea and bloody diarrhoea. Children (who may be poisoned by the attractive red fruit) often show additional narcotic symptoms with muscular twitching. Work by Frohne and Pfänder has determined that it is the chewed seed, not the fruit pulp, that is responsible for the severe symptoms in poisoning by the berries.\n\nA seven-year-old boy who was admitted to hospital (Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Heidelberg) after consuming several flowers of D. mezereum (number unspecified) at first exhibited symptoms very similar to acute appendicitis, with headache and abdominal pain....a number of neurologically and psychically striking symptoms developed in the hours that followed: periods of complete disorientation and very severe motor unrest alternated with periods of complete clarity, with tetanoid fearfulness. Towards evening, signs of meningitis and finally generalised convulsions appeared. Very severe diarrhoea then heralded serious enteritis which only subsided after a week.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphne_mezereum" }, "daphne-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of daphnes are toxic, the berries being particularly so. One active compound is daphnin, a glycoside, combining glucose with daphnetin. Some species have been shown to contain a further toxin, mezerein. Symptoms of ingestion include burning sensations and lesions of the mouth and upper digestive tract, gastroenteritis and diarrhoea, and in severe cases, damage to the kidneys (nephritis), irregular heart rhythm, and coma.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphne_(plant)" }, "datura-stramonium": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of Datura plants contain dangerous levels of the tropane alkaloids atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine, all of which are classified as deliriants, or anticholinergics. The risk of fatal overdose is high among uninformed users, and many hospitalizations occur among recreational users who ingest the plant for its psychoactive effects. Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported. Numerous other alkaloids have been detected at lower levels in the plant including methylecgonine in the roots, apoatropine in the stems, leaves, and other parts, and tropine in the flowers and other parts.\nThe amount of toxins varies widely from plant to plant. As much as a 20:1 variation can be found between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. A particularly strong difference has been found between plants growing in their native ranges and plants that have adjusted to growing in non-native ranges: in the latter, the atropine and scopolamine concentration may be up to 20–40 times lower than in the native range. It is suspected that this is an evolutionary response to lower predatory pressures. Additionally, within a given plant, toxin concentration varies by part and even from leaf to leaf. When the plant is younger, the ratio of scopolamine to atropine is about 3:1; after flowering, this ratio is reversed, with the amount of scopolamine continuing to decrease as the plant gets older. In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datura_stramonium" }, "daucus-carota": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Like many other species of Apiaceae, the leaves of the wild carrot may cause phytophotodermatitis; skin contact with the foliage, especially wet foliage, can cause skin irritation in some people, so caution should be used when handling the plant. It may also have a mild effect on horses.\nThe compound falcarinol is naturally found in Daucus carota for protection against fungal diseases. Laboratory tests show the compound is toxic to mice and to the water flea Daphnia magna. Normal consumption of carrots has no toxic effect in humans.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daucus_carota" }, "delphinium-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of these plants are considered toxic to humans, especially the younger parts, causing severe digestive discomfort if ingested, and skin irritation. Larkspur, especially tall larkspur, is a significant cause of cattle poisoning on rangelands in the western United States. Larkspur is more common in high-elevation areas, and many ranchers delay moving cattle onto such ranges until late summer when the toxicity of the plants is reduced.\nDeath is through cardiotoxic and neuromuscular blocking effects, and can occur within a few hours of ingestion. All parts of the plant contain various diterpenoid alkaloids, typified by methyllycaconitine, and are very poisonous.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphinium" }, "dieffenbachia-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The cells of the Dieffenbachia plant contain needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals called raphides. If a leaf is chewed, these crystals can cause a temporary burning sensation and erythema. In rare cases, edema of tissues exposed to the plant has been reported. Mastication and ingestion generally result in only mild symptoms. With both children and pets, contact with Dieffenbachia (typically from chewing) can cause a host of unpleasant symptoms, including intense numbing, oral irritation, excessive drooling, and localized swelling. However, these effects are rarely life-threatening. In most cases, symptoms are mild, and can be successfully treated with analgesic agents, antihistamines, or medical charcoal. \nSevere cases can occur if Dieffenbachia makes prolonged contact with oral mucosal tissue. In such cases, symptoms generally include severe pain which can last for several days to weeks. Hospitalization may be necessary if prolonged contact is made with the throat, in which severe swelling has the potential to affect breathing. \nGastric evacuation or lavage is seldom indicated. In patients with exposure to toxic plants, 70% are children younger than 5 years.\nStories that Dieffenbachia is a deadly poison are urban legends.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieffenbachia" }, "digitalis-purpurea": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Due to the presence of the cardiac glycoside digitoxin, the leaves, flowers and seeds of this plant are all poisonous to humans and some animals and can be fatal if ingested.\nThe main toxins in Digitalis spp. are the two chemically similar cardiac glycosides: digitoxin and digoxin. Like other cardiac glycosides, these toxins exert their effects by inhibiting the ATPase activity of a complex of transmembrane proteins that form the sodium potassium ATPase pump, (Na+/K+-ATPase). Inhibition of the Na+/K+-ATPase in turn causes a rise not only in intracellular Na+, but also in calcium, which in turn results in increased force of myocardial muscle contractions. In other words, at precisely the right dosage, Digitalis toxin can cause the heart to beat more strongly. However, digitoxin, digoxin and several other cardiac glycosides, such as ouabain, have narrow therapeutic windows (i.e., because of their steep dose-response curves, minute increases in the dosage of these drugs can make the difference between an ineffective dose and a fatal one). There are now better options with a wider therapeutic window.\nSymptoms of Digitalis poisoning include a low pulse rate, nausea, vomiting, and uncoordinated contractions of different parts of the heart, leading to cardiac arrest and finally death.\n\nExtracted from the leaves, this same cardiac glycoside digitoxin is used as a medication for heart failure. Its clinical use was pioneered by William Withering, who recognized it \"reduced dropsy\", increased urine flow, and had a powerful effect on the heart by making it beat slower but more efficiently waiting for the heart to fill with blood before pumping.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalis_purpurea" }, "echium-plantagineum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "E. plantagineum – commonly called Paterson's curse or pyrrolizidinosis in veterinary medicine – contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which is poisonous to grazing animals, especially nonruminants. When eaten in large quantities, it causes reduced livestock weight, and death in severe cases, due to liver damage. Paterson's curse can kill horses, and irritate the udders of dairy cows and the skin of humans. \nAfter the 2003 Canberra bushfires, a large bloom of the plant occurred on the burned land, and many horses became ill and died from grazing on it. Because the alkaloids can also be found in the nectar of Paterson's curse, the honey made from it should be blended with other honeys to dilute the toxins.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echium_plantagineum" }, "epipremnum-aureum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant is listed as toxic to cats and dogs by the ASPCA, because of the presence of insoluble raphides. Care should be taken to ensure the plant is not consumed by pets. Symptoms may include oral irritation, vomiting, and difficulty in swallowing.\nDue to the calcium oxalate within the plant, it can be mildly toxic to humans as well. Possible side effects from the consumption of E. aureum are atopic dermatitis (eczema) as well as burning and/or swelling of the region inside of and surrounding the mouth. Excessive contact with the plant can also lead to general skin irritation or contact dermatitis.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epipremnum_aureum" }, "equisetum-arvense": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Equisetum arvense is toxic to livestock, particularly horses. It is difficult to control due to its extensive underground rhizomes, which can penetrate the soil up to 6 feet (1.8 m) deep. Fire, mowing, or slashing are ineffective since new stems quickly grow from the rhizomes. Some herbicides remove aerial growth but regrowth quickly occurs albeit with a reduction in frond density.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equisetum_arvense" }, "erythrostemon-gilliesii": { "heading": "Poisoning", "text": "Poisoning may occur with the seeds of this plant. The seeds and the green seed pods of this plant are toxic, provoking severe vomiting and other abdominal symptoms.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythrostemon_gilliesii" }, "eupatorium-capillifolium": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Dog fennel contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids which can cause liver failure.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eupatorium_capillifolium" }, "euphorbia-milii": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The sap is moderately poisonous, and causes irritation on contact with skin or eyes. If ingested, it causes severe stomach pain, irritation of the throat and mouth, and vomiting. The poisonous ingredients have been identified as phorbol esters. It is very toxic to domesticated animals such as, horses, sheep, cats and dogs. For humans it is mildly toxic and only acts as an irritant.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphorbia_milii" }, "euphorbia-pulcherrima": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Poinsettias are popularly, though incorrectly, said to be toxic to humans and other animals. This misconception was spread by a 1919 urban legend of a two-year-old child dying after consuming a poinsettia leaf. In 1944, the plant was included in H. R. Arnold's book Poisonous Plants of Hawaii on this premise. Though Arnold later admitted that the story was hearsay and that poinsettias were not proven to be poisonous, the plant was thus thought deadly. In 1970 the US Food and Drug Administration published a newsletter stating erroneously that \"one poinsettia leaf can kill a child\", and in 1980 they were prohibited from nursing homes in a county in North Carolina due to this supposed toxicity.\nAn attempt to determine a poisonous dose of poinsettia to rats failed, even after reaching experimental doses equivalent to consuming 500 leaves, or nearly 1 kg (2.2 lb) of sap. Contact with any part of the plant by children or pets often has no effect, though it may cause nausea, diarrhea, or vomiting if swallowed. External exposure to the plant may result in a skin rash for some. A survey of more than 20,000 calls to the American Association of Poison Control Centers from 1985–1992 related to poinsettia exposure showed no fatalities. In 92.4% of calls, there was no effect from exposure, and in 3.4% of calls there were minor effects, defined as \"minimally bothersome\". Similarly, a cat's or dog's exposure to poinsettias rarely necessitates medical treatment. If ingested, mild drooling or vomiting can occur, or rarely, diarrhea. In rare cases, exposure to the eye may result in eye irritation. Skin exposure to the sap may cause itchiness, redness, or swelling. It can induce asthma and allergic rhinitis in certain groups of people.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphorbia_pulcherrima" }, "euphorbia-tirucalli": { "heading": "Toxicology", "text": "The milky latex from E. tirucalli is extremely irritating to the skin and mucosa and is toxic. Exposure to it can cause temporary blindness. Skin contact causes severe irritation, redness and a burning sensation. If ingested, it can cause burns to the mouth, lips and tongue. It is suggested to wear eye protection gear and gloves for handling the plant.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphorbia_tirucalli" }, "galanthus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Snowdrops contain an active lectin or agglutinin named GNA for Galanthus nivalis agglutinin.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galanthus" }, "gelsemium-sempervirens": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of this plant contain the toxic strychnine-related alkaloids gelsemine and gelseminine and should not be consumed. The sap may cause skin irritation in sensitive individuals. Children, mistaking this flower for honeysuckle, have been poisoned by sucking the nectar from the flower. The nectar is also toxic to honeybees, which may cause brood death when gathered by the bees. The nectar may, however, be beneficial to bumblebees. It has been shown that bumblebees fed on gelsemine have a reduced load of Crithidia bombi in their fecal matter after 7 days, although this difference was not significant after 10 days. Reduced parasite load increases foraging efficiency, and pollinators may selectively collect otherwise toxic secondary metabolites as a means of self-medication.\nThe plant can be lethal to livestock.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelsemium_sempervirens" }, "glechoma-hederacea": { "heading": "Safety", "text": "Although it has been used by humans as a salad green and in herbal medicines for thousands of years, the species is also believed to be toxic to livestock, particularly horses. Wild pigs, however, are reported to feed on it. Some accounts report it is toxic to rodents, while bank voles in Great Britain have been observed to use it as a food source. Like other members of the Lamiaceae, G. hederacea contains bioactive volatile oils, including terpenoids and pulegone; these are responsible for the characteristic \"minty\" odor and taste of plants in the mint family. Their activity in humans varies depending on many factors, including concentration, quantity of intake, and whether administration is internal or external. Lamiacaeae plants with very high volatile oil concentrations, such as European pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), have traditional uses as disinfectants, flea-killers, and abortifacients, and are hepatotoxic to humans. Other members of the Lamiacaeae, such as Mentha spicata, spearmint, are widely and safely used in teas and flavorings for their volatile oils. The concentration of volatile oil in G. hederacea is less than 1/30th that in European pennyroyal. The effects of Glechoma on humans have been little studied.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glechoma_hederacea" }, "gloriosa-superba": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "This plant is poisonous, and toxic enough to cause human and animal fatalities if ingested. It has been used to commit murder, to achieve suicide, and to kill animals. Every part of the plant is poisonous, especially the tuberous rhizomes. As with other members of the Colchicaceae, this plant contains high levels of colchicine, a toxic alkaloid. It also contains the alkaloid gloriocine. Within a few hours of the ingestion of a toxic amount of plant material, a victim may experience nausea, vomiting, numbness, tingling around the mouth, burning in the throat, abdominal pain, and bloody diarrhea, which leads to dehydration. As the toxic syndrome progresses, rhabdomyolysis, ileus, respiratory depression, hypotension, coagulopathy, haematuria, altered mental status, seizures, coma, and ascending polyneuropathy may occur. Longer-term effects include peeling of the skin and prolonged vaginal bleeding in women. Colchicine is known to cause alopecia. One case report described a patient who accidentally ate the tubers and then experienced hair loss over her entire body, including complete baldness. Poisonings can occur when the tubers are mistaken for sweet potatoes or yams and eaten. The plant can be dangerous for cats, dogs, horses, and livestock, as well.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloriosa_superba" }, "gutierrezia-sarothrae": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "G. sarothrae can be toxic to domestic sheep, goats, and cattle when consumed in large quantities, although domestic goats are moderately resistant to its effects. Its toxicity is due primarily to saponins, which can cause illness, death, or abortion, as well as to alkaloids, terpenes, and flavonols in the plant. The species is also a facultative absorber of selenium, which can cause illness or death in large amounts. As little as 9 kilograms (20 pounds) of fresh G. sarothrae consumed by cattle in seven days can cause miscarriages, and in cattle, sheep, and goats consuming ten to 20% of their body weight in two weeks can cause death. Toxicity is generally higher during periods of rapid growth, such as early leaf development, and when grown on sandy rather than on calcareous or clay soils.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutierrezia_sarothrae" }, "hedera-helix": { "heading": "Toxicity and medical uses", "text": "Ivy berries are somewhat poisonous to humans, but extracts from ivy leaves are part of current cough medicines. A 2020 evidence review found that H. helix preparations \"may be a therapeutic option for treating early symptoms of respiratory tract infections\", saying that \"the best effectiveness for H. helix preparations has been proven for coughing, as an expectorant and to reduce the frequency and intensity of cough. Only weak evidence was found for all other researched symptoms.\"\nIn the past, the leaves and berries were taken orally as an expectorant to treat cough and bronchitis. In 1597, the British herbalist John Gerard recommended water infused with ivy leaves as a wash for sore or watering eyes. The leaves can cause severe contact dermatitis in some people. People who have this allergy (strictly a type IV hypersensitivity) are also likely to react to carrots and other members of the Apiaceae as they contain the same allergen, falcarinol.\nPrevious studies showed that the H. helix extract contains α-hederin and β-hederin, falcarinol, didehydrofalcarinol, rutin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, emetine, nicotiflorin, hederasaponin B and hederacoside C. However, only three extracted components were detectable more than 1.5% in the Hedera helix leaves (hederacoside C 15.69%, chlorogenic acid 2.07%, and rutin 1.62%). Other components were detectable in very few amounts (\u003c 1%) or not detectable in some studies.\nOwing to the large number of saponins in the leaves and fruits of H. helix, it is mildly poisonous to animals like rabbits and can lead to anemia.\nIn a hunting session for resources, birds would restrict the number of ivy berries ingested because of the moderate toxicity.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedera_helix" }, "helleborus-niger": { "heading": "Poisonous constituents", "text": "All parts of the Christmas Rose plant are considered toxic upon consumption or physical contact with sap from damaged plant tissues. This is due to the fact that its organs contain varying levels of different glycosides - which are common plant defense mechanisms against herbivores and microorganisms.\n\nThe leaves, stems and flowers of Helleborus niger contain ranunculin and ranuncoside - glycosides whose breakdown yields the toxin protoanemonin when plant cells are damaged. Protoanemonin has an unpleasant taste and can cause irritation of the skin, mucosa and eyes upon contact. If large amounts are ingested, the toxin can cause itching and blistering of the mouth and throat as well as gastroenteritis and hematemesis in both humans and animals.\n\nA key compound in the roots of Helleborus niger is Hellebrin, a bufadienolide which has similar cardiac activity but is less toxic than the cardiac glycosides found in Digitalis and Strophanthus plants. The degradation products of Hellebrin also strengthen heart contractions, but are more toxic than their parent molecule. The aglycon Hellebrigenin has the lowest lethal dose along with stronger cardiac activity than the original glucoside Hellebrin. Though rare, Hellebrin and its derivatives are considered responsible for severe or lethal Christmas Rose poisonings because their interference with the ion channels of the heart can lead to various arrhythmias.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helleborus_niger" }, "helleborus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All helleborus plants are toxic, and all parts of the helleborus plant are toxic. Hellebore poisoning is rare, but it does occur.\nHellebore plants are usually left alone by animals such as deer and rabbits because the leaves of the plant produce various toxins, making them distasteful to animals. The leaves have been known to sometimes bother gardeners with sensitive skin. It was used in the First Sacred War at the start of the sixth century BC to poison the water supply of the city of Kirrha.\nPoisonings occur through ingestion or handling. Hellebore plants should not be ingested as poisoning cases are most severe when the plants are eaten. This is especially true when hellebores are eaten in large quantities. Symptoms of ingestion include: burning of the mouth and throat, salivation, vomiting, abdominal cramping, diarrhea, nervous symptoms, and possibly depression. Consuming large quantities of hellebore plants can be fatal. Toxic steroids occur in the roots. High levels of ranunculin and protoanemonin, especially in the leaves and sap, also contribute to symptoms after ingestion.\nDermatitis may also occur from handling the hellebore plants without protection. This is caused by the ranunculin and protoanemonin found within the plant's leaves, stems, flowers, and sap. When collecting seeds from hellebore plants, it is recommended to wait for the pods to dry and shake them out into a container or onto the ground to collect. Attempts to remove the seeds by hand could potentially cause chemical burns. Small or minimal exposure to the toxins should only cause a mild irritation to the skin, and the affliction should only last for a few minutes.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellebore" }, "hemerocallis-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Eating too many uncooked flowers of some species can cause diarrhea. Hemerocallis species are toxic to cats and ingestion may be fatal. Treatment is usually successful if started before kidney failure has developed.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylily" }, "heracleum-maximum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant contains furanocoumarins such as xanthotoxin, angelicin, pimpinellin and isopimpinellin, isoimperatorin, bergapten and isobergapten, 6‐isopentenyloxyisobergapten, and sphondin. In one study, the young leaves did not contain xanthotoxin, but older, senescing leaves contained \"substantial amounts\". Some of these furanocoumarins found in cow parsnip are known to have antimicrobial properties and are responsible for a rash producing erythematous vesicles (burn-like blisters) and hyperpigmentation that occurs after getting the clear sap onto one's skin. They are photosensitive, with the rash occurring only after exposure to ultraviolet light. Because of this, phytophotodermatitis causing skin blistering may occur after coming into contact with the sap on a sunny day. The scars and pigmentation from these blisters caused by some Heracleum species can last for months or years.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleum_maximum" }, "heteromeles-arbutifolia": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Toyon pomes are acidic and astringent, and contain a small amount of cyanogenic glycosides, which break down into hydrocyanic acid on digestion. This is removed by mild cooking. Most fruit from plants in the family Rosaceae, including apples, apricots, peaches, cherries, and plums, contain cyanide.\nA 2016 study found 5 g of the dried berries (used as a treatment for Alzheimer's) to be safe. The study also found no cyanogenic compounds in the plant.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heteromeles" }, "hippomane-mancinella": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the tree contain strong toxins. The tree contains 12-deoxy-5-hydroxyphorbol-6-gamma-7-alpha-oxide, furocoumarins, sapogenines, hippomanins, mancinellin and other phorbol esters, which are responsible for the manchineel's toxicity.\nIts milky white sap produces strong allergic contact dermatitis. Standing beneath the tree during rain will cause blistering of the skin from mere contact with this liquid: even a small drop of rain with the sap in it will cause the skin to blister. Burning the tree may cause ocular injuries if the smoke reaches the eyes. Contact with its milky sap (latex) produces bullous dermatitis, acute keratoconjunctivitis and possibly large corneal epithelial defects.\nAlthough the fruit is potentially fatal if eaten, no such occurrences have been reported in modern literature. Ingestion can produce severe gastroenteritis with bleeding, shock, and bacterial superinfection, as well as the potential for airway compromise due to edema.\nWhen ingested, the fruit is reportedly \"pleasantly sweet\" at first, with a subsequent \"strange peppery feeling ... gradually progress[ing] to a burning, tearing sensation and tightness of the throat.\" Symptoms continue to worsen until the patient can \"barely swallow solid food because of the excruciating pain and the feeling of a huge obstructing pharyngeal lump.\"\nIn some parts of its range, many trees carry a warning sign – for example on the island Curaçao – while others are marked with a red \"X\" on the trunk to indicate danger.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchineel" }, "humulus-lupulus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "H. lupulus can cause dermatitis to some who handle them. It is estimated that about 1 in 30 people are affected by this.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humulus_lupulus" }, "hyacinthus-orientalis": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of this plant are reportedly toxic to humans and animals if ingested.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyacinthus_orientalis" }, "hyacinthus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Several species (e.g Drimia maritima) produce toxic cardiac glycosides such as scilliroside.\nIn South Africa, for example, Ornithogalum thyrsoides, and several Ledebouria species (Ledebouria cooperi, L. inguinata, L. ovatifolia, L. revoluta), Ornithogalum saundersiae and several members of the tribe Urgineeae are poisonous to livestock.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scilloideae" }, "hyoscyamus-niger": { "heading": "Preparation, dosage, toxicity", "text": "Henbane leaves and herbage without roots are chopped and dried and are then used for medicinal purposes or in incense and smoking blends, in making beer and tea, and in seasoning wine. Henbane leaves are boiled in oil to derive henbane oil. Henbane seeds are an ingredient in incense blends. In all preparations, the dosage has to be carefully estimated as henbane is highly toxic. For some therapeutic applications, dosages like 0.5 g and 1.5–3 g were used. The lethal dosage is not known.\nHenbane is toxic to cattle, wild animals, fish, and birds. Not all animals are susceptible; for example, the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including cabbage moths, eat henbane. Pigs are immune to henbane toxicity and are reported to enjoy the effects of the plant.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoscyamus_niger" }, "hypericum-perforatum": { "heading": "Adverse effects", "text": "Use of H. perforatum may produce adverse effects when combined with other antidepressants through an increase in brain serotonin levels called serotonin syndrome, which may be life-threatening and is associated with rapid heart rate, acute hypertension, mydriasis, and fever. Photosensitivity and acute neuropathy upon sun exposure, and reduced response to chemotherapy are other possible effects.\nCommon side effects of St John's wort products are headache, nausea, fatigue, dry mouth, sleepiness, and gastrointestinal upset. It should not be consumed during pregnancy and breastfeeding.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypericum_perforatum" }, "hypochaeris-radicata": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "This species is associated with stringhalt in horses and donkeys if consumed in excess, the exact etiology unknown; otherwise non-poisonous and no contact dermatitis association.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypochaeris_radicata" }, "ilex-aquifolium": { "heading": "Chemistry and toxicity", "text": "Holly berries contain alkaloids, theobromine, saponins, caffeic acid, and a yellow pigment, ilixanthin. The berries are generally regarded as toxic to humans.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilex_aquifolium" }, "ilex-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Holly can contain caffeic acid, caffeoyl derivatives, chlorogenic acid, quercetin, quinic acid, kaempferol, tannins, rutin, caffeine, theobromine, and ilicin.\nHolly berries can cause vomiting and diarrhea. They are especially dangerous in cases involving accidental consumption by children attracted to the bright red berries. Ingestion of over 20 berries may be fatal to children.\nHolly leaves, if eaten, might cause diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and stomach and intestinal problems.\nHolly plants might be toxic to pets and livestock.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly" }, "iris-spuria": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Like many other irises, most parts of the plant are poisonous (rhizome and leaves), and can cause stomach pains and vomiting if mistakenly ingested. Handling the plant may cause skin irritation or an allergic reaction.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iris_spuria" }, "jasminum-officinale": { "heading": "Safety", "text": "Jasmine is \"generally recognized as safe\" (GRAS) as a food ingredient by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.\nIt is unknown whether jasmine consumption affects breastmilk, as the safety and efficacy of jasmine in nursing mothers or infants has not been adequately studied. Drinking small amounts of jasmine tea likely are not harmful during nursing.\nAllergic reactions to jasmine may occur.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasminum_officinale" }, "jatropha-podagrica": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant are considered toxic, in particular the seeds. The main toxins are a purgative oil and a phytotoxin or toxalbumin (curcin) similar to ricin in Ricinis.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatropha_podagrica" }, "jatropha-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Much like other members of the family Euphorbiaceae, members of the genus Jatropha contain several toxic compounds. The seeds of Jatropha curcas contain toxic lectin dimers and carcinogenic phorbol esters. Despite this, the seeds are occasionally eaten after roasting, which reduces some of the toxicity. Its sap is a skin irritant, and ingesting as few as three untreated seeds can be fatal to humans. In 2005, Western Australia banned Jatropha gossypiifolia as invasive and highly toxic to people and animals. It continues to be used as a medicine in certain geographic regions; however, one study found the dried leaf to have no anti-fungal activity.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jatropha" }, "juniperus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "In drier areas, juniper pollen easily becomes airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs. This pollen can also irritate the skin and cause contact dermatitis. Cross-allergenic reactions are common between juniper pollen and the pollen of all species of cypress.\nMonoecious juniper plants are highly allergenic, with an Ogren Plant Allergy Scale (OPALS) rating of 9 out of 10. Completely male juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 10, and release abundant amounts of pollen. Conversely, all-female juniper plants, totally lacking pollen, have an OPALS rating of 1, and are considered \"allergy-fighting\".", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juniper" }, "kalmia-angustifolia": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Kalmia contains a glycoside, known as andromedotoxin. It is poisonous to mammals. Hence, it can be unwelcome in pastures. Several of its folk-names testify to the plant's toxicity: 'lamb-kill', 'sheep kill', 'calf-kill', 'pig laurel', 'sheep-laurel' and 'sheep-poison'. It is also known as narrow-leaved laurel and dwarf laurel.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmia_angustifolia" }, "kalmia-latifolia": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Mountain laurel is poisonous to several animals, including horses, goats, cattle, deer, monkeys, and humans, due to grayanotoxin and arbutin. The green parts of the plant, flowers, twigs, and pollen are all toxic, including food products made from them, such as toxic honey that may produce neurotoxic and gastrointestinal symptoms in humans eating more than a modest amount. Symptoms of toxicity begin to appear about 6 hours following ingestion. Symptoms include irregular or difficulty breathing, anorexia, repeated swallowing, profuse salivation, watering of the eyes and nose, cardiac distress, incoordination, depression, vomiting, frequent defecation, weakness, convulsions, paralysis, coma, and eventually death. Necropsy of animals who have died from spoonwood poisoning show gastrointestinal hemorrhage.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmia_latifolia" }, "lantana-camara": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Lantana camara is known to be toxic to livestock such as cattle, sheep, horses, dogs and goats. The active substances causing toxicity in grazing animals are pentacyclic triterpenoids called Lantadenes, which result in liver damage and photosensitivity. L. camara also excretes allelopathic chemicals, which reduce the growth of surrounding plants by inhibiting germination and root elongation.\nThe toxicity of L. camara to humans is undetermined, with several studies suggesting that ingesting berries can be toxic to humans, such as a study by O. P. Sharma which states \"Green unripe fruits of the plant are toxic to humans\". North Carolina State University's Extension Gardener website states that ingestion of the flowers, fruits, and leaves can cause vomiting, diarrhea, difficulty breathing, and liver failure, while the leaves can cause contact dermatitis. A field guide by the US Department of the Army says the plant can even be fatal. Contrarily, some studies have claimed that the species poses no risk to humans when eaten, and is in fact edible when ripe.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantana_camara" }, "lathyrus-odoratus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Unlike the edible pea, there is evidence that seeds of members of the genus Lathyrus are toxic if ingested in quantity. A related species, Lathyrus sativus, is grown for human consumption but when it forms a major part of the diet it causes symptoms of toxicity called lathyrism.\nIn studies of rats, animals fed a diet of 50% sweet pea seeds developed enlarged adrenals relative to control animals fed on edible peas. The main effect is thought to be on the formation of collagen. Symptoms are similar to those of scurvy and copper deficiency, which share the common feature of inhibiting proper formation of collagen fibrils. Seeds of the sweet pea contain beta-aminopropionitrile that prevents the cross-linking of collagen by inhibiting lysyl oxidase and thus the formation of allysine, leading to loose skin. Recent experiments have attempted to develop this chemical as a treatment to avoid disfiguring skin contractions after skin grafting.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_pea" }, "lilium-longiflorum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "L. longiflorum is toxic to cats. The true mechanism of toxicity is undetermined, but it involves damage to the renal tubular epithelium (composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting, and conducting urine), which can cause acute kidney injury. Veterinary help should be sought, as a matter of urgency, for any cat that is suspected of eating any part of the lily – including licking pollen that may have brushed onto its coat.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium_longiflorum" }, "lilium-occidentale": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Cats are extremely sensitive to lily toxicity and ingestion is often fatal; households and gardens which are visited by cats are strongly advised against keeping this plant or placing dried flowers where a cat may brush against them and become dusted with pollen which they then consume while cleaning. Suspected cases require urgent veterinary attention. Rapid treatment with activated charcoal and/or induced vomiting can reduce the amount of toxin absorbed (this is time-sensitive so in some cases vets may advise doing it at home), and large amounts of fluid by IV can reduce damage to kidneys to increase the chances of survival.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium_occidentale" }, "lilium-philadelphicum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Cats are extremely sensitive to lily toxicity and ingestion is often fatal. Households and gardens that are visited by cats are strongly advised against keeping this plant or placing dried flowers where a cat may brush against them and become dusted with pollen that they then consume while cleaning. Suspected cases require urgent veterinary attention.\nRapid treatment with activated charcoal and/or induced vomiting can reduce the amount of toxin absorbed (this is time-sensitive so in some cases, vets may advise doing it at home), and large amounts of fluid by intravenous injection can reduce damage to kidneys to increase the chances of survival.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium_philadelphicum" }, "lilium-speciosum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Lily pollen is toxic to domestic cats and ingestion is often fatal; households and gardens which are visited by cats are advised against growing lilies or placing lily flowers where a cat may brush against them and become dusted with pollen, which they then consume while cleaning. Suspected cases require urgent veterinary attention. Prompt treatment with activated charcoal and/or induced vomiting can reduce the amount of toxin absorbed, and large amounts of fluid by IV can reduce damage to kidneys to increase the chances of survival.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium_speciosum" }, "lilium-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some Lilium species are toxic to cats. This is known to be especially so for Lilium longiflorum, though other Lilium and the unrelated Hemerocallis can also cause the same symptoms with equal lethality. The true mechanism of toxicity is undetermined, but it involves damage to the renal tubular epithelium (composing the substance of the kidney and secreting, collecting, and conducting urine), which can cause acute kidney failure. Veterinary help should be sought, as a matter of urgency, for any cat that is suspected of eating any part of a lily – including licking pollen that may have brushed onto its coat. Due to the high mortality rate, medical care should be sought immediately once it is known a cat came into contact with lilies, ideally before any symptoms develop.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium" }, "lilium-tigrinum": { "heading": "Cat toxicity", "text": "A case study of the successful treatment of a cat that ingested this particular species was published in 2007.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilium_lancifolium" }, "lobelia-cardinalis": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "As a member of the Lobelia genus, L. cardinalis contains a number of naturally occurring, toxic alkaloids, including lobelanine and lobeline, thus rendering the species potentially harmful if ingested. Various negative physical symptoms may manifest upon consuming even small or mid-sized quantities of the plant, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, excessive salivation, fatigue/exhaustion, weakness, dilation of pupils, convulsions, and even coma.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobelia_cardinalis" }, "lobelia-inflata": { "heading": "Traditional uses and adverse effects", "text": "Lobelia inflata has a long use as a medicinal plant as an entheogenic, emetic, and skin or respiratory aid. Native Americans used it for respiratory and muscle disorders, as a purgative, and as a ceremonial medicine. The leaves were chewed and smoked. The plant was used as a traditional medicinal plant by the Cherokee, Iroquois, Penobscot, and other indigenous peoples. The foliage was burned by the Cherokee as a natural insecticide, to smoke out gnats.\nAlthough it may be used medicinally, consuming lobelia causes adverse effects, which may include sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tremors, rapid heartbeat, mental confusion, convulsions, hypothermia, coma, or possibly death. The root is toxic and can be fatal if eaten.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobelia_inflata" }, "lobelia-spp": { "heading": "Adverse effects", "text": "Many members of the genus are considered poisonous, with some containing the toxic principle lobeline. Because of lobeline's similarity to nicotine, the internal use of lobelia may be dangerous to susceptible populations, including children, pregnant women, and individuals with cardiac disease. Excessive use will cause nausea and vomiting. It is not recommended for use by pregnant women and is best administered by a practitioner qualified in its use. It also has a chemical known as lobellicyonycin, which may cause dizziness.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobelia" }, "lupinus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some lupins contain certain secondary compounds, including isoflavones and toxic alkaloids, such as lupinine, anagyrine and sparteine. With early detection, these can be removed through processing, although lupins containing these elements are not usually selected for food-grade products.\nA risk of lupin allergy exists in patients allergic to peanuts. Most lupin reactions reported have been in people with peanut allergy. Because of the cross-allergenicity of peanut and lupin, the European Commission, as of 2006, has required that food labels indicate the presence of \"lupin and products thereof\" in food.\nLupin plants can be colonized by the fungus Diaporthe toxica which can cause a mycotoxicosis known as lupinosis when ingested by grazing animals.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupinus" }, "lysichiton-americanus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant contains calcium oxalate crystals, which result in a prickling sensation on the tongue and throat and can cause intestinal irritation; if consumed in large quantities it can even cause death.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysichiton_americanus" }, "malus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The seeds contain cyanide compounds.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malus" }, "mandragora-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Like many members of the Solanaceae, species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. Hanuš et al. reviewed the phytochemistry of Mandragora species. More than 80 substances have been identified; their paper gives the detailed chemical structure of 37 of them. The different parts of the plant contain different proportions and concentrations of alkaloids, with the roots having the highest concentrations. Alkaloids present include atropine, apoatropine, belladonnine, cuscohygrine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine (hyoscine), 3α-tigloyloxytropane, and 3α,6β-ditigloyloxytropane. M. caulescens and M. turcomanica are also reported to contain anisodamine.\nClinical reports of the effects of consumption of plants described as M. autumnalis (M. offinarum sensu lato) include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing, and a rapid heart rate (tachycardia). Hyperactivity and hallucinations also occurred in the majority of patients.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandragora_(genus)" }, "manihot-esculenta": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Cassava roots, peels and leaves are dangerous to eat raw because they contain linamarin and lotaustralin, which are toxic cyanogenic glycosides. These are decomposed by the cassava enzyme linamarase, releasing poisonous hydrogen cyanide. Cassava varieties are often categorized as either bitter (high in cyanogenic glycosides) or sweet (low in those bitter compounds). Sweet cultivars can contain as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide per kilogram of fresh roots, whereas bitter cultivars may contain as much as 1000 milligrams per kilogram. Cassavas grown during drought are especially high in these toxins. A dose of 25 mg of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside, which contains 2.5 mg of cyanide, is sufficient to kill a rat. Excess cyanide residue from improper preparation causes goiters and acute cyanide poisoning, and is linked to ataxia (a neurological disorder affecting the ability to walk, also known as konzo). It has also been linked to tropical fibrocalcific pancreatitis in humans, leading to chronic pancreatitis.\nSymptoms of acute cyanide intoxication appear four or more hours after ingesting raw or poorly processed cassava: vertigo, vomiting, goiter, ataxia, partial paralysis, collapse, and death. It can be treated easily with an injection of thiosulfate (which makes sulfur available for the patient's body to detoxify by converting the poisonous cyanide into thiocyanate).\nChronic, low-level exposure to cyanide may contribute to both goiter and tropical ataxic neuropathy, also called konzo, which can be fatal.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassava" }, "melia-azedarach": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The fruits have evolved to be eaten by animals, which eat the flesh surrounding the hard endocarp or ingest the entire fruit and later vent the endocarp. If the endocarp is crushed or damaged during ingestion or digestion, the animal will be exposed to the toxins within the seed. The processes of mastication and digestion, and the degree of immunity to the particular toxins, vary widely between species, and there is accordingly great variation in clinical symptoms following ingestion.\nThe fruits are poisonous or narcotic to humans if eaten in large quantities. According to Chinese medical literature, human poisoning can occur if 6–9 fruits, 30–40 seeds, or 400 grams of bark are eaten. The toxins include neurotoxins and unidentified resins, found mainly in the fruits. The first symptoms of poisoning appear a few hours after ingestion. They may include loss of appetite, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, bloody faeces, stomach pain, pulmonary congestion, cardiac arrest, rigidity, lack of coordination and general weakness. Death may take place after about 24 hours. As in its relatives, tetranortriterpenoids constitute an important toxic principle. These are chemically related to azadirachtin, the primary insecticidal compound in the commercially important neem oil. These compounds are probably related to the wood and seed's resistance to pest infestation, and maybe to the unattractiveness of the flowers to animals. The plant is toxic to cats.\nHowever, these toxins are not harmful to many species of bird, who gorge themselves on the fruit, eventually reaching a \"drunken\" state. The birds that are able to eat the fruit spread the intact seeds in their droppings.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melia_azedarach" }, "menispermum-canadense": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of these plants are known to be poisonous. The principal toxin is the alkaloid dauricine. The fruit of Canadian moonseed are poisonous and can be fatal. While foraging for wild grapes, one should examine the seeds of the fruit to make sure one is not eating moonseeds: moonseeds have a single crescent-shaped seed, while grapes have round seeds. Differences in taste should also be an indicator of whether or not a specimen is grape or moonseed, moonseeds have a taste that is described as \"rank\". Also, the moonseed vine lacks tendrils, whilst the vine of the wild grape has forked tendrils.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menispermum_canadense" }, "mentha-pulegium": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Pennyroyal is toxic to humans and has differing effects dependent on the volume and concentration ingested. The most concentrated and toxic form of the pennyroyal plant is pennyroyal oil. The oil contains pulegone (a cyclohexanone), the molecule found in the highest concentration (80-92%) in the pennyroyal plant. Pulegone causes a variety of ailments in those who ingest it and is what causes the plant to have its peppermint flavor.\nSymptoms that may persist after ingesting a small dose (\u003c10 mL) of pennyroyal oil are nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and dizziness. Larger volumes may result in multiorgan failure that could lead to death. There are no current toxicokinetics studies performed on humans for the effects of pulegone, but there are some studies performed on other mammals. When pulegone is ingested, it is broken down by the liver and reacts to form multiple toxic metabolites that can wreak havoc in the body. Some identified metabolites are menthofuran, piperitenone, piperitone, and menthone.\nAs little as 10 mL of pennyroyal oil ingestion was associated with moderate to severe hepatic toxicity.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentha_pulegium" }, "momordica-charantia": { "heading": "Adverse effects", "text": "A possible side effect is gastrointestinal discomfort. The ripe fruit and the mature seeds are toxic.\n\nBitter melon is contraindicated in pregnant women because it can induce bleeding, contractions, and miscarriage.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momordica_charantia" }, "monstera-deliciosa": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Monstera deliciosa is moderately toxic to both cats and dogs because it contains needle-like insoluble calcium oxalate crystals. These crystals may cause injury to the mouth, tongue, and digestive tract. It also causes dermatitis by direct contact with cat and dog skin.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstera_deliciosa" }, "nandina-domestica": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant are poisonous, containing compounds that decompose to produce hydrogen cyanide, and could be fatal if ingested. The plant is generally considered non-toxic to humans, but the berries are considered toxic to cats and grazing animals. Excessive consumption of the berries will kill birds such as cedar waxwings, because they are subject to cyanide toxicosis, resulting in death to multiple individuals at one time.\nThe berries also contain alkaloids such as nantenine, which is used in scientific research as an antidote to MDMA (ecstasy).", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nandina_domestica" }, "narcissus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All Narcissus species contain the alkaloid poison lycorine, mostly in the bulb but also in the leaves. Members of the monocot subfamily Amaryllidoideae present a unique type of alkaloids, the norbelladine alkaloids, which are 4-methylcatechol derivatives combined with tyrosine. They are responsible for the poisonous properties of a number of the species. Over 200 different chemical structures of these compounds are known, of which 79 or more are known from Narcissus alone.\nThe toxic effects of ingesting Narcissus products for both humans and animals (such as cattle, goats, pigs, and cats) have long been recognised and they have been used in suicide attempts. Ingestion of N. pseudonarcissus or N. jonquilla is followed by salivation, acute abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, then neurological and cardiac events, including trembling, convulsions, and paralysis. Death may result if large quantities are consumed.\nThe toxicity of Narcissus varies with species, N. poeticus being more toxic than N. pseudonarcissus, for instance. The distribution of toxins within the plant also varies, for instance, there is a five times higher concentration of alkaloid in the stem of N. papyraceus than in the bulb, making it dangerous to herbivores more likely to consume the stem than the bulb, and is part of the plant's defence mechanisms. The distribution of alkaloids within tissues may also reflect defence against parasites. The bulbs can also be toxic to other nearby plants, including roses, rice, and cabbages, inhibiting growth. For instance placing cut flowers in a vase alongside other flowers shortens the life of the latter.\n\nMany cases of poisoning or death have occurred when narcissi bulbs have been mistaken for leeks or onions and cooked and eaten.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissus_(plant)" }, "nerium-oleander": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Oleander is a poisonous plant, containing the toxic steroidal aglycone cardenolide-type cardiac glycosides odorosiside, adigoside, and oleandrin, especially when consumed in large amounts. These compounds have a narrow therapeutic index and are toxic when ingested. Adverse effects after ingestion include weakness, diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, headache, stomach pain, and death.\nToxicity studies of animals concluded that birds and rodents were observed to be relatively insensitive to the administered oleander cardiac glycosides. Other mammals, however, such as dogs and humans, are relatively sensitive to the effects of cardiac glycosides and the clinical manifestations of \"glycoside intoxication\".\nIt is also hazardous to animals such as sheep, horses, cattle, and other grazing animals, with as little as 100 g being enough to kill an adult horse. Plant clippings are especially dangerous to horses, as they are sweet. In July 2009, several horses were poisoned in this manner from the leaves of the plant. Symptoms of a poisoned horse include severe diarrhoea and abnormal heartbeat. This is aptly reflected in the plant's Sanskrit name aśvamāra (अश्वमार), a compound of aśva \"horse\" and māra \"killing\".\nIn reviewing oleander toxicity cases seen in-hospital, Lanford and Boor concluded that, except for children who might be at greater risk, \"the human mortality associated with oleander ingestion is generally very low, even in cases of moderate intentional consumption (suicide attempts).\" In 2000, a rare instance of death from oleander poisoning occurred when two toddlers adopted from an orphanage ate the leaves from a neighbor's shrub in El Segundo, California.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerium_oleander" }, "ornithogalum-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity and use in alternative medicine", "text": "Some of the plants in the genus are poisonous, and have been known to kill grazing animals. Others are edible and used as vegetables. The bulbs contain various toxic alkaloids and steroids. \nOrnithogalum has been listed as one of the 38 plants used to prepare Bach flower remedies, a kind of alternative medicine promoted for its effect on health. However, according to Cancer Research UK, \"there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer\".", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithogalum" }, "ornithogalum-umbellatum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant, especially the bulb and flowers, contains cardiac glycosides, specifically convallatoxin and convalloside which are toxic to humans and livestock. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, and shortness of breath, as well as pain, burning, and swelling of lips, tongue, and throat. Prolonged contact may lead to skin irritation.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithogalum_umbellatum" }, "pachyrhizus-erosus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "In contrast to the root, the remainder of the plant is very poisonous; the seeds contain the toxin rotenone, which is used to poison insects and fish. Mature seeds, flowers, and beans have a high rotenone content. Commercial jícama cultivation considered using them as an insecticide source.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachyrhizus_erosus" }, "pastinaca-sativa": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The shoots and leaves of parsnip must be handled with care, as its sap contains furanocoumarins, phototoxic chemicals that cause blisters on the skin when it is exposed to sunlight, a condition known as phytophotodermatitis. It shares this property with many of its relatives in the carrot family. Symptoms include redness, burning, and blisters; afflicted areas can remain sensitive and discolored for up to two years. Reports of gardeners experiencing toxic symptoms after coming into contact with foliage have been made, but these have been small compared to the number of people who grow the crop. The problem is most likely to occur on a sunny day when gathering foliage or pulling up old plants that have gone to seed. The symptoms have mostly been mild to moderate. Risk can be reduced by wearing long pants and sleeves to avoid exposure, and avoiding sunlight after any suspected exposure.\nIf eyes are exposed to the sap it can cause blindness.\nThe toxic properties of parsnip extracts are resistant to heating and periods of storage lasting several months. Toxic symptoms can also affect livestock and poultry in parts of their bodies where their skin is exposed. Polyynes can be found in Apiaceae vegetables such as parsnip, and they show cytotoxic activities.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsnip" }, "perilla-frutescens": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Although perilla is widely cultivated as an edible plant for humans, it is toxic to cattle and other ruminants, as well as horses. In grazing cattle, plant ketones cause acute respiratory distress syndrome, also called \"panting disease\".\nContact dermatitis may occur in people handling the leaves or oil. Consumption of large amounts of seeds has resulted in anaphylaxis.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilla_frutescens" }, "persea-americana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome, is related to latex allergy and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.\n\nAvocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits, rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.\nAvocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and without veterinary treatment, death. The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.\nThe leaves of the Guatemalan variety of P. americana are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado" }, "phaseolus-vulgaris": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The toxic compound phytohaemagglutinin, a lectin, is present in many common bean varieties but is especially concentrated in red kidney beans. White kidney beans contain about a third as much phytohaemagglutinin as the red variety; broad beans (Vicia faba) contain 5–10% of the amount that red kidney beans contain.\nPhytohaemagglutinin can be inactivated by a two-step process. The United States Food and Drug Administration recommends soaking the dry beans for at least five hours in water, which should then be discarded; this first step is largely for reducing indigestible carbohydrates. Then boiling the hydrated (wet, soft) beans for 30 minutes to ensure they reach a sufficient temperature for long enough to destroy the toxin completely. \nOutbreaks of poisoning have been associated with cooking kidney beans in slow cookers at 80 °C/176 °F, which is insufficient to deactivate all toxins. \nThe primary symptoms of phytohaemagglutinin poisoning are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Onset is from one to three hours after consumption of improperly prepared beans, and symptoms typically resolve within a few hours. Consumption of as few as four or five raw, soaked kidney beans can cause symptoms. Canned red kidney beans are safe to use immediately, as they have already been cooked.\n\nBeans are high in purines, which are metabolized to uric acid. Uric acid is not a toxin but may promote the development or exacerbation of gout. However, more recent research has questioned this association, finding that moderate intake of purine-rich foods is not associated with an increased risk of gout.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaseolus_vulgaris" }, "philodendron-bipinnatifidum": { "heading": "Toxicology", "text": "P. bipinnatifidum sap may cause skin irritation. Chewing and/or ingesting parts of the plant may result in severe swelling and compromised respiratory functions.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philodendron_bipinnatifidum" }, "philodendron-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Philodendrons can contain as much as 0.7% of oxalates in the form of calcium oxalate crystals as raphides. The risk of death, if even possible, is extremely low if ingested by an average adult, although its consumption is generally considered unhealthy. In general, the calcium oxalate crystals have a very mild effect on humans, and large quantities have to be consumed for symptoms to even appear. Possible symptoms include increased salivation, a sensation of burning of the mouth, swelling of the tongue, stomatitis, dysphagia, an inability to speak, and edema. Cases of mild dermatitis due to contact with the leaves have also been reported, with symptoms including vesiculation and erythema. The chemical derivatives of alkenyl resorcinol are believed to be responsible for the dermatitis in some people. Contact with philodendron oils or fluids with the eyes have also been known to result in conjunctivitis. Fatal poisonings are extremely rare; one case of an infant eating small quantities of a philodendron resulting in hospitalization and death has been reported. This one case study, however, was found to be inconsistent with the findings from a second study. In this study, 127 cases of children ingesting philodendrons were studied, and they found only one child showed symptoms; a 10-month-old had minor upper lip swelling when he chewed on a philodendron leaf. The study also found the symptoms could subside without treatment and that previously reported cases of severe complications were exaggerated.\nIn a 1961 study, 72 cases of cat poisonings were examined, of which 37 resulted in the death of the cat. The symptoms of the poisoned cats included excitability, spasms, seizures, kidney failure, and encephalitis.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philodendron" }, "phytolacca-americana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant can be toxic and pose risks to the health of all mammals, including humans. Toxins are found in highest concentration in the rootstock, then leaves and stems, then the ripe fruit. The plant generally gets more toxic with maturity, with the exception of the berries, which are dangerous even while green.\nChildren may be attracted by clusters of berries. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC) notes:\n\nChildren are most frequently poisoned by eating raw berries. Infants are especially sensitive and have died from eating only a few raw berries. Adults have been poisoned, sometimes fatally, by eating improperly prepared leaves and shoots, especially if part of the root is harvested with the shoot, and by mistaking the root for an edible tuber. Research with humans has also shown that common pokeweed can cause mutations (possibly leading to cancer) and birth defects. Since the juice of pokeweed can be absorbed through the skin, contact of plant parts with bare skin should be avoided.\nPokeweed is to be avoided during pregnancy and children consuming even one berry may require emergency treatment. The plant sap can cause dermatitis in sensitive people.\nMost mammals dislike the taste of the plant and avoid it unless it is the only food source or if it is mixed in their feed. The fresh leaves have poisoned livestock who have eaten the green leaves or roots.\nIf death occurs, it is usually due to respiratory paralysis.\nPokeweed poisoning was common in eastern North America during the 19th century, especially from the use of tinctures as antirheumatic preparations and from ingestion of berries and roots that were mistaken for parsnip, Jerusalem artichoke, or horseradish.\n\nOwen states:", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytolacca_americana" }, "podophyllum-peltatum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All the parts of the plant are poisonous, including the unripe green fruit and perhaps the ripe fruit eaten in excess. The rhizome, foliage, and roots are all poisonous. Mayapple contains podophyllotoxin or podophyllin, which is highly toxic if consumed.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podophyllum_peltatum" }, "prunus-laurocerasus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Leaves and seed may cause severe discomfort to humans if ingested. The seeds contained within the cherries are poisonous like the rest of the plant, containing cyanogenic glycosides and amygdalin. This chemical composition is what gives the smell of almonds when the leaves are crushed. Laurel water, a distillation made from the plant, contains prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) and other compounds and is toxic.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prunus_laurocerasus" }, "prunus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Many species are cyanogenic; that is, they contain compounds called cyanogenic glucosides, notably amygdalin, which, on hydrolysis, yield hydrogen cyanide. Although the fruits of some may be edible by humans and livestock (in addition to the ubiquitous fructivory of birds), seeds, leaves and other parts may be toxic, some highly so. The plants contain no more than trace amounts of hydrogen cyanide, but on decomposition after crushing and exposure to air or on digestion, poisonous amounts may be generated. The trace amounts may give a characteristic taste (\"bitter almond\") with increasing bitterness in larger quantities, less tolerable to people than to birds, which habitually feed on specific fruits.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prunus" }, "pteridium-aquilinum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant contains the carcinogenic compound ptaquiloside. Ptaquiloside is known to cause haemorrhagic diseases in ruminants, tumours and haematological problems in non-ruminants, and is correlated with oesophageal and gastric cancer in humans. Chronic bracken consumption is also associated with upper digestive tract (UDT) squamous cell carcinomas in cattle (ruminants)—with the most aggressive and serious tumors located in the caudal (lower) UDT.\nHigh stomach cancer rates are found in Japan and North Wales, where the young stems are used as a vegetable, but it is unknown whether bracken plays any part or if the cancer can be attributed to another cause. Consumption of ptaquiloside-contaminated milk is thought to contribute to human gastric cancer in the Andean states of Venezuela. The spores have also been implicated as carcinogens. Consumption of contaminated water and meat may be dangerous as well.\nHowever, ptaquiloside is water-soluble, and is reduced by soaking bracken in cool water. Korean and Japanese cooks have traditionally soaked the shoots in water and ash to detoxify the plant before eating. Ptaquiloside also degenerates at room temperature, which explains why the rat studies were done with the toxin stored at −20 °C (−4 °F). At boiling temperature, the carcinogen denatures almost completely. Salt and baking soda also help with volatilizing the chemical.\nIt has been suggested that selenium supplementation can prevent as well as reverse the immunotoxic effects induced by ptaquiloside from Pteridium aquilinum.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pteridium_aquilinum" }, "quercus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The leaves and acorns of oaks are poisonous to livestock, including cattle and horses, if eaten in large amounts, due to the toxin tannic acid, which causes kidney damage and gastroenteritis. An exception is the domestic pig, which, under the right conditions, may be fed entirely on acorns, and has traditionally been pastured in oak woodlands (such as the Spanish dehesa and the English system of pannage). Humans can eat acorns after leaching out the tannins in water.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak" }, "ranunculus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All Ranunculus (buttercup) species are poisonous when eaten fresh, but their acrid taste and the blistering of the mouth caused by their poison means they are usually left uneaten. Poisoning in livestock can occur where buttercups are abundant in overgrazed fields where little other edible plant growth is left, and the animals eat them out of desperation. Symptoms of poisoning include bloody diarrhea, excessive salivation, colic, and severe blistering of the mouth, mucous membranes and gastrointestinal tract. When Ranunculus plants are handled, naturally occurring ranunculin is broken down to form protoanemonin, which is known to cause contact dermatitis in humans and care should therefore be exercised in extensive handling of the plants. The toxins are degraded by drying, so hay containing dried buttercups is safe.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranunculus" }, "rheum-rhabarbarium": { "heading": "Phytochemistry and potential toxicity", "text": "The roots and stems contain anthraquinones, such as emodin and rhein. Emodin \"represents a genotoxic risk for humans\" while rhein is \"a compound devoid of genotoxic capabilities\". The anthraquinones have been separated from powdered rhubarb root for purposes in traditional medicine, although long-term consumption of anthraquinones has been associated with acute kidney failure.\nThe rhizomes contain stilbenoid compounds (including rhaponticin), and the flavanol glucosides (+)-catechin-5-O-glucoside and (−)-catechin-7-O-glucoside.\n\nRhubarb leaves contain poisonous substances, including oxalic acid, a nephrotoxin. The long term consumption of oxalic acid leads to kidney stone formation in humans. Humans have been poisoned after ingesting the leaves, a particular problem during World War I when the leaves were mistakenly recommended as a food source in Britain. The printed information recommending the leaves as a food source was rediscovered during World War 2 and redistributed, leading to further deaths. The toxic rhubarb leaves have been used in flavouring extracts, after the oxalic acid is removed by treatment with precipitated chalk (i.e., calcium carbonate).\nThe LD50 (median lethal dose) for pure oxalic acid in rats is about 375 mg/kg body weight, or about 25 grams for a 65-kilogram (143 lb) human. Other sources give a much higher oral LDLo (lowest published lethal dose) of 600 mg/kg. While the oxalic acid content of rhubarb leaves can vary, a typical value is about 0.5%, meaning a 65 kg adult would need to eat 4 to 8 kg (9 to 18 lbs) to obtain a lethal dose, depending on which lethal dose is assumed. Cooking the leaves with baking soda can make them more poisonous by producing soluble oxalates.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhubarb" }, "rhododendron-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some species of rhododendron are poisonous to grazing animals because of a toxin called grayanotoxin in their pollen and nectar. People have been known to become ill from eating mad honey made by bees feeding on rhododendron and azalea flowers. Xenophon described the odd behaviour of Greek soldiers after having consumed honey in a village surrounded by Rhododendron ponticum during the march of the Ten Thousand in 401 BCE. Pompey's soldiers reportedly suffered lethal casualties following the consumption of mad honey that was deliberately left behind by Pontic forces in 67 BCE during the Third Mithridatic War. Later, it was recognized that honey resulting from these plants has a slightly hallucinogenic and laxative effect. The suspect rhododendrons are Rhododendron ponticum and Rhododendron luteum (formerly Azalea pontica), both found in northern Asia Minor. Eleven similar cases during the 1980s have been documented in Istanbul, Turkey. Rhododendron is extremely toxic to horses, with some animals dying within a few hours of ingesting the plant, although most horses tend to avoid it if they have access to good forage. Rhododendron, including its stems, leaves and flowers, contains toxins that, if ingested by a cat's stomach, can cause seizures and even coma and death.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhododendron" }, "ricinus-communis": { "heading": "Allergenicity and toxicity", "text": "Ricinus is extremely allergenic, and has an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. The plant is also a very strong trigger for asthma, and allergies to Ricinus are commonplace and severe.\nThe castor oil plant produces abundant amounts of very light pollen, which easily become airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs, triggering allergic reactions. The sap of the plant causes skin rashes. People who are allergic to the plant can also develop rashes from touching the leaves, flowers, or seeds. They can also have cross-allergic reactions to latex sap from the related Hevea brasiliensis plant.\nThe toxicity of raw castor beans is due to the presence of ricin. Although the lethal dose in adults is considered to be four to eight seeds, reports of actual poisoning are relatively rare. According to the Guinness World Records, this is the world's most poisonous common plant. Ricin is also present in lower concentrations throughout the plant.\nIf ricin is ingested, symptoms commonly begin within two to four hours, but may be delayed by up to 36 hours. These include a burning sensation in mouth and throat, abdominal pain, purging and bloody diarrhea. Within several days there is severe dehydration, a drop in blood pressure and a decrease in urine. Unless treated, death can be expected to occur within 3–5 days; however, in most cases a full recovery can be made.\nPoisoning occurs when animals, including humans, ingest broken castor beans or break the seed by chewing: intact seeds may pass through the digestive tract without releasing the toxin. The toxin provides the castor oil plant with some degree of natural protection from insect pests such as aphids.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricinus_communis" }, "robinia-pseudoacacia": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The bark, leaves, and wood are toxic to both humans and livestock. Important constituents of the plant are the toxalbumin robin, which loses its toxicity when heated, and robinin, a nontoxic glucoside.\nHorses that consume the plant show signs of anorexia, depression, incontinence, colic, weakness, and cardiac arrhythmia. Symptoms usually occur about 1 hour following consumption, and immediate veterinary attention is required.\nThe sawdust and shavings from Robinia lumber can cause contact dermatitis in sensitive persons.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinia_pseudoacacia" }, "robinia-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All species produce toxic lectins, throughout the entire plant, with the exception of the flowers.\nThe flowers are used in teas and in pancakes, and are consumed as fritters in many parts of Europe.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinia" }, "sambucus-mexicana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The raw berries contain a toxin which, if eaten raw, may induce nausea in some people.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambucus_cerulea" }, "sambucus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some species of the Sambucus genus produce toxic berries, leaves, roots, and stems. Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of some Sambucus plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties. Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness. In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked S. mexicana berries, leaves, and stems. The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.\nThe berries and leaves of the species Sambucus nigra, spp. canadensis have been shown to lack cyanogenic glycosides. In a 2021 scientific analysis, commercial elderberry juice made from Sambucus nigra, spp. canadensis in Illinois, USA, had no trace of cyanogenic glycosides. The authors also point out that the 1983 \"poisoning\" event in California which coincided with consumption of Sambucus cerulea, rather than Sambucus mexicana, was not caused by cyanide.\nThe seeds of Sambucus racemosa are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambucus" }, "sanguinaria-canadensis": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Bloodroot produces benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, primarily the toxin sanguinarine. The alkaloids are transported to and stored in the rhizome.\nSanguinarine kills animal cells by blocking the action of Na+/K+-ATPase transmembrane proteins. As a result, applying bloodroot to the skin may destroy tissue and lead to the formation of necrotic tissue, called an eschar. Bloodroot and its extracts are thus considered escharotic. Although applying escharotic agents (including bloodroot) to the skin is sometimes promoted as a pseudoscientific home treatment for skin cancer, these attempts can be severely disfiguring. Salves, most notably black salve, derived from bloodroot do not remove tumors. Microscopic tumor deposits may remain after visible tumor tissue is burned away, and case reports have shown that in such instances tumor has recurred and/or metastasized.\nInternal use is not recommended. An overdose of bloodroot extract can cause vomiting and loss of consciousness.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanguinaria" }, "scindapsus-aureus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The plant is listed as toxic to cats and dogs by the ASPCA, because of the presence of insoluble raphides. Care should be taken to ensure the plant is not consumed by pets. Symptoms may include oral irritation, vomiting, and difficulty in swallowing.\nDue to the calcium oxalate within the plant, it can be mildly toxic to humans as well. Possible side effects from the consumption of E. aureum are atopic dermatitis (eczema) as well as burning and/or swelling of the region inside of and surrounding the mouth. Excessive contact with the plant can also lead to general skin irritation or contact dermatitis.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scindapsus_aureus" }, "senecio-vulgaris": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "In the United States, Senecio vulgaris has been listed as a noxious weed, being both non-native to most if not all of the Americas and having a reputation for being hepatotoxic to livestock and to humans.\n\nHuman\nAs a plant that is reported to be both poisonous for humans and also medicinal, much of the contradiction can be found by closely reviewing the words that are used and the dose (amount) of the poisonous substance that is ingested to prove either claim. All species of the genus Senecio contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids (e.g., senecionine), a substance that when a human has chronic exposure can cause irreversible liver damage.\nCommon groundsel as a medicinal herb does not seem to have been recommended very often since 1931, when it was recommended as a diaphoretic, an antiscorbutic, a purgative, a diuretic and an anthelmintic, which was a demotion as it was previously suggested for the expelling of gravel of the kidneys and reins by Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century, for use as poultices by John Gerard in the late 16th century and as a cure for epilepsy by Nicholas Culpeper in the 17th century. More current information is contradictory about the dangers of the ingestion of groundsel. A heavily referenced paper from 1989 suggests that the response is immediate and gives pre-ambulatory care recommendations. A Canadian poisonous plants information database references a paper from 1990 in presenting this prenatal warning: \"In a case of prenatal exposure, a mother ingested tea containing an estimated 0.343 milligram of senecionine, resulting in fatal veno-occlusive disease in a newborn infant.\" Information about the pyrrolizidine alkaloids, the substance present in S.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senecio_vulgaris" }, "senna-occidentalis": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Senna occidentalis seeds contain anthraquinones (AQs) such as Rhein, Emodin, Aloe-emodin, Chrysophanol, and Physcion, which have been linked to hepatomyoencephalopathy in children. The cytotoxicity of these AQs correlates with their binding affinity to serum albumin, with Rhein showing the highest toxicity and binding affinity. The plant is reported to be poisonous to cattle, because it contains a known toxic derivative of anthraquinone called emodin, and the seeds contain chrysarobin (1,8-dihydroxy-3-methyl-9-anthrone) and N-methylmorpholine. The plant also has some poisonous characteristics to humans if enough of it is taken. Emodin and Aloe-emodin exhibited strong binding affinities to DNA, which is associated with their high cytotoxic potential. Rhein was found to oxidize glutathione (GSH) significantly, contributing to its toxic effects, while Physcion and Chrysophanol showed minimal interactions with DNA, correlating with their lower toxicity. This suggests that the toxicity of AQs from the seeds is significantly influenced by their interaction with proteins and DNA, leading to adverse health effects. \nDespite the claims of being poisonous, the leaves of this plant, Dhiguthiyara in the Maldivian language, have been used in the diet of the Maldives for centuries in dishes such as mas huni and also as a medicinal plant.\nAlmost all parts (leaf, root, seeds) of the plant are used as food and medicine by tribal populations in India. However, consumption of Bana Chakunda seeds has been identified as a possible cause of death of tribal children due to acute Encephalopathy (see Acute HME syndrome). Once the plant was identified as the cause, the number of deaths plummeted.\nThe same thing happened in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where 16 outbreaks were recorded.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senna_occidentalis" }, "sesbania-punicea": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Sesbania puniceas contains toxic saponic glycosides. The poison can be dangerous to local birds and mammals. Humans who ingest this plant or its seeds may become very sick and may suffer vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory failure, and death.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesbania_punicea" }, "solanum-carolinense": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Many parts of the plant have historically been used to create medicines to treat various conditions. It was listed in the United States National Formulary from 1916 to 1936 for use by pharmacists. However all parts of the plant, including its tomato-like fruit, contain toxins in varying degrees due to the presence of solanine glycoalkaloids which is a toxic alkaloid and one of the plant's natural defenses. While ingesting any part of the plant can cause fever, headache, scratchy throat, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, ingesting the fruit can cause abdominal pain, circulatory and respiratory depression, or even death.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanum_carolinense" }, "solanum-nigrum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Solanine levels in S. nigrum have been tested, and the plant is rarely fatal. \nSolanine poisoning symptoms may occur when immature green fruit or mature leaves are ingested raw. There is typically a delay of 6 to 12 hours after ingestion for symptoms to occur. Initial symptoms of toxicity include fever, sweating, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, confusion, and drowsiness. Death from ingesting large amounts of the plant results from cardiac arrhythmias and respiratory failure. Livestock have also been poisoned from nitrate toxicity by grazing the mature leaves and green berries of S. nigrum. In central Spain, the great bustard (Otis tarda) may act as a seed disperser of European black nightshade (Solanum nigrum). Black nightshade is highly variable, and some advice says to avoid eating the berries unless they are a known edible strain. The toxin levels may also be affected by the plant's growing conditions. The toxins in S. nigrum are most concentrated in the unripe green berries, and immature fruit should be treated as toxic. Most cases of suspected poisoning are due to consumption of leaves or unripe fruit. There are ethnobotanical accounts of S. nigrum young leaves and shoots being boiled as a vegetable with the cooking water being discarded and replaced several times to remove toxins. Solanine is practically insoluble in water and can be destroyed by boiling but not by baking. S. nigrum's leaves may be different from this perspective. Young cooked leaves of Solanum complex sp. are a source of many useful nutrients similar to levels found in spinach. Solanum complex berries have been consumed since ancient times.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanum_nigrum" }, "solanum-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Most parts of the plants, especially the green parts and unripe fruit, are poisonous to humans (although not necessarily to other animals), with some species even being deadly.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanum" }, "solanum-tuberosum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Raw potatoes contain toxic glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), as well as food plants like tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are especially concentrated in the aerial parts of the plant. The tubers are low in these toxins, unless they are exposed to light, which makes them go green.\nExposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber. Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The 'Lenape' variety, released in 1967, was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids. Since then, breeders of new varieties test for this, sometimes discarding an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below 200 mg/kg (0.0032 oz/lb). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, their solanine concentrations can go well above this limit, with higher levels in the potato's skin.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato" }, "spathiphyllum-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Although it is called a \"lily\", the peace lily is not a true lily from the family Liliaceae. True lilies are highly toxic (poisonous) to cats and dogs, but the peace lily, Spathiphyllum is only mildly toxic to humans and other animals when ingested. Like many Araceae, it contains calcium oxalate crystals, which can cause skin irritation, a burning sensation in the mouth, difficulty swallowing, and nausea, but it does not contain the toxins found in true lilies, which can cause acute kidney failure in cats and some other animals.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spathiphyllum" }, "sphenosciadium-capitellatum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The species is included in Toxic Plants of North America (2001).", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphenosciadium" }, "symphoricarpos-albus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The fruit and shrub are poisonous to humans, causing vomiting.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphoricarpos_albus" }, "symphytum": { "heading": "Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity", "text": "Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset, and the derivation of its Latin name Symphytum (from the Greek symphytis, meaning growing together of bones, and phyton, a plant, referring to its ancient uses. Similarly, the common French name is consoude, meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.\nComfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and inulin, among others. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfrey's liver toxicity, which is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts. In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.\nIn 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use. Use of comfrey is particularly discouraged during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphytum" }, "symphytum-x-uplandicum": { "heading": "Phytochemistry, folk medicine, and toxicity", "text": "Folk medicine names for comfrey include knitbone, boneset, and the derivation of its Latin name Symphytum (from the Greek symphytis, meaning growing together of bones, and phyton, a plant, referring to its ancient uses. Similarly, the common French name is consoude, meaning to weld together. The tradition in different cultures and languages suggest a common belief in its usefulness for mending bones.\nComfrey contains mixed phytochemicals in varying amounts, including allantoin, mucilage, saponins, tannins, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and inulin, among others. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are responsible for comfrey's liver toxicity, which is associated with consuming this plant or its extracts. In modern herbalism, comfrey is most commonly used topically.\nIn 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a ban of comfrey products marketed for internal use, and a warning label for those intended for external use. Use of comfrey is particularly discouraged during pregnancy and lactation, in infants, and in people with liver, kidney, or vascular diseases.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphytum" }, "symplocarpus-foetidus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Since its roots are antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic, emetic, expectorant, and slightly narcotic, it is not recommended to consume the raw plant directly. While high quantities of the root can produce nausea and vomiting, headaches, and dizziness, handling the fresh leaves can burn skin. Other symptoms of poisoning include swelling of the lip, throat, and tongue. This is due to calcium oxalate crystals, which are moderately harmful to humans. It is possible to eliminate the toxicity with care, such as changing the water frequently when boiling the leaves, or thoroughly drying the plant.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplocarpus_foetidus" }, "syngonium-podophyllum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of Syngonium podophyllum are poisonous and cause severe mouth pain if eaten. It is not unusual to find these growing in Sub-tropical Florida landscapes, where homeowners and Gardeners need to be aware of the severe skin burning sensations caused by the plants sap containing oxalic acid and the eye damage potential from raphides.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syngonium_podophyllum" }, "tanacetum-vulgare": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Many tansy species contain a volatile oil which can cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. If taken internally, toxic metabolites are produced as the oil is broken down in the liver and digestive tract. It is highly toxic to internal parasites, and for centuries tansy tea has been prescribed by herbalists to expel worms. Tansy is an effective insecticide and is highly toxic to arthropods. Because it contains thujone, the U.S. FDA limits the use of tansy to alcoholic beverages, and the final product must be thujone-free. Blue tansy (Vogtia annua, syn. Tanacetum annuum) is often confused with common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) but the former produces an essential oil that is completely different chemically as it contains no thujone and high amounts of chamazulene making the oil dark blue in colour, giving rise to its common name of Blue Tansy Oil. Despite claims by some unethical resellers of essential oils who adulterate the very expensive blue tansy oil with the much cheaper oil from Tanacetum vulgare, the oil from Tanacetum vulgare is never blue in colour as it contains no chamazulene. For this reason a high thujone oil from Tanacetum vulgare should never be referred to as \"Blue Tansy\" oil and any such blue oil containing significant thujone is an adulterated product.\nThe active components of the volatile oil include 1,8-cineole, trans-thujone, camphor and myrtenol, with the quantities and proportions of each varying seasonally and from plant to plant.\n1,8-Cineole is a toxin believed to defend the plant leaves against attacks by herbivores.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tansy" }, "taxus-cuspidata": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The entire yew bush, except the aril (the red flesh of the berry covering the seed), is toxic due to a group of chemicals called taxine alkaloids. Their cardiotoxicity is well known and act via calcium and sodium channel antagonism, causing an increase in cytoplasmic calcium currents of the myocardial cells. The seeds contains the highest concentrations of these alkaloids. If any leaves or seeds of the plant are ingested, urgent medical advice is recommended, as well as observation for at least 6 hours after the point of ingestion. The most cardiotoxic taxine is Taxine B followed by Taxine A; Taxine B also happens to be the most common alkaloid in the Taxus species.\n\nYew poisonings are relatively common in both domestic and wild animals who consume the plant accidentally. The taxine alkaloids are absorbed quickly from the intestine and in high enough quantities can cause death due to general cardiac failure, cardiac arrest, or respiratory failure. Taxines are also absorbed efficiently via the skin and Taxus species should thus be handled with care and preferably with gloves. Taxus baccata leaves contain approximately 5 mg of taxines per 1g of leaves. The estimated (i.e. not by any means a fact) lethal dose (LDmin) of Taxus baccata leaves is 3.0-6.5 mg/kg body weight for humans There is currently no known antidotes for yew poisoning, but drugs such as atropine have been used to treat the symptoms. Taxine remains in the plant all year, with maximal concentrations appearing during the winter. Dried yew plant material retains its toxicity for several months and even increases its toxicity as the water is removed, fallen leaves are also toxic.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxus_cuspidata" }, "taxus-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All species of yew contain highly poisonous taxine alkaloids, with some variation in the exact formula of the alkaloid between the species. All parts of the tree except the arils contain the alkaloid. The arils are edible and sweet, but the seed is dangerously poisonous; unlike birds, the human stomach can break down the seed coat and release the toxins into the body. This can have fatal results if yew 'berries' are eaten without removing the seeds first. Grazing animals, particularly cattle and horses, are also sometimes found dead near yew trees after eating the leaves, though deer are able to break down the poisons and will eat yew foliage freely. In the wild, deer browsing of yews is often so extensive that wild yew trees are commonly restricted to cliffs and other steep slopes inaccessible to deer. The foliage is also eaten by the larvae of some Lepidopteran insects including the moth willow beauty.\n\nAll parts of a yew plant are toxic to humans with the exception of the yew berries (which however contain a toxic seed); additionally, male and dioecious yews in this genus release cytotoxic pollen, which can cause headaches, lethargy, aching joints, itching, and skin rashes; it is also a trigger for asthma. These pollen granules are extremely small, and can easily pass through window screens. Male yews bloom and release abundant amounts of pollen in the spring; completely female yews only trap pollen while producing none.\nYews in this genus are primarily separate-sexed, and males are extremely allergenic, with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. Completely female yews have an OPALS rating of 1, and are considered \"allergy-fighting\".", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxus" }, "thevetia-peruviana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the C. thevetia plant are toxic to most vertebrates as they contain cardiac glycosides. Many cases of intentional and accidental poisoning of humans are known. Case reports have identified Tecojote root supplements as a source of accidental ingestion of yellow oleander.\nThe main toxins are the cardenolides thevetin A and thevetin B; others include peruvoside, neriifolin, thevetoxin and ruvoside. These cardenolides are not destroyed by drying or heating and are very similar to digoxin from Digitalis purpurea. They produce gastric upset and cardiotoxic effects, such as an abnormally slow heart rate, EKG abnormalities (scooped ST segments), and abnormally high levels of potassium in the blood. Antidotes include atropine and digoxin immune fabs (antibodies), and treatment may include oral administration of activated charcoal. Ovine polyclonal anti-digitoxin Fab fragment antibody (DigiTAb; Therapeutic Antibodies Inc.) can be used to treat T. peruviana poisoning, but in many countries the cost is prohibitively high.\nA few bird species are, however, known to feed on them without any ill effects. These include sunbirds, Asian koel, red-whiskered bulbul, white-browed bulbul, red-vented bulbul, brahminy myna, common myna and common grey hornbill.\nIn South India and in Sri Lanka, swallowing the seeds of Thevetia peruviana (Kaneru කණේරු (Sinhala), Manjal arali (Tamil)) is one of the preferred methods for suicides in villages where they are grown in abundance.\nExtracts from C. thevetia are reported to possess antispermatogenic activity in rats.\nIn 2023, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported on weight loss supplements which had substituted Crataegus mexicana and Aleurites moluccanus for C.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thevetia_peruviana" }, "toxicodendron-pubescens": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of this plant contain urushiol, which can cause severe dermatitis in sensitive individuals. The risk of exposure may be reduced by learning to recognize and avoid this species and wearing clothing that covers the legs and arms. Contaminated clothing should be laundered before subsequent handling or use.\nEffects of poison oak are similar to those of its close relative poison ivy. It causes severe itching, inflammation, and blistering.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicodendron_pubescens" }, "toxicodendron-radicans": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Urushiol-induced contact dermatitis is the allergic reaction caused by poison ivy. In extreme cases, a reaction can progress to anaphylaxis. Around 15 to 25 percent of people have no allergic reaction to urushiol, but most people have a greater reaction with repeated or more concentrated exposure. Typically, the rash from the urushiol oil lasts about five to twelve days, but in extreme cases, it can last a month or more.\nOver 350,000 people are affected by urushiol annually in the US.\nThe pentadecyl catechols of the oleoresin within the sap of poison ivy and related plants causes the allergic reaction; the plants produce a mixture of pentadecylcatechols, which collectively is called urushiol. After injury, the sap leaks to the surface of the plant where the urushiol becomes a blackish lacquer after contact with oxygen.\nUrushiol binds to the skin on contact, where it causes severe itching that develops into reddish inflammation or uncoloured bumps, and then blistering. These lesions may be treated with Calamine lotion, Burow's solution compresses, dedicated commercial poison ivy itch creams, or baths to relieve discomfort, though recent studies have shown some traditional medicines to be ineffective.\nOver-the-counter products to ease itching—or simply oatmeal baths and baking soda—are recommended by dermatologists for the treatment of poison ivy.\n\nA plant-based remedy cited to counter urushiol-induced contact dermatitis is jewelweed, though jewelweed extracts had no positive effect in clinical studies. Others argue that prevention of lesions is easy if one practices effective washing, using plain soap, scrubbing with a washcloth, and rinsing three times within 2–8 hours of exposure.\nThe oozing fluids released by scratching blisters do not spread the poison.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicodendron_radicans" }, "toxicodendron-vernix": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "In terms of its potential to cause urushiol-induced contact dermatitis, poison sumac is more toxic than its relatives poison ivy and poison oak. \nThe differences in toxicity in poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are due to differences in the side chains of the chemicals in these plants. In general, poison ivy has a C15 side chain, poison oak has a C17 side chain and poison sumac has a C13 side chain.\nThe dermatitis shows itself in painful and long continued swellings and eruptions. In the worst case, smoke inhaled by burning poison sumac leads to life-threatening pulmonary edema whereby fluid enters the alveoli.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicodendron_vernix" }, "tradescantia-virginiana": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Some members of the genus Tradescantia may cause allergic reactions in pets (especially cats and dogs) characterised by red, itchy skin. Notable culprits include T. albiflora (scurvy weed), T. spathacea (Moses in the cradle), and T. pallida (purple heart).", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradescantia" }, "trifolium-hybridum": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "There is limited evidence of T. hybridum having toxic effects on horses including photosensitization and Alsike clover poisoning. Photosensitivity in horses, also known as alsike rash, is a reversible condition in which the mechanism is unknown. A diet in equestrians of at least 20% T. hybridum over the course of four weeks could lead to poisoning which includes deleterious neurological effects and liver failure. The active toxin is unknown.\nThe plant can irritate skin if handled.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifolium_hybridum" }, "tulip-spp": { "heading": "Consumption and toxicity", "text": "As with other plants of the lily family, tulips are poisonous to domestic animals including horses, cats, and dogs. In cats, ingestion of small amounts of tulips can cause vomiting, depression, diarrhoea, hypersalivation, and irritation of the mouth and throat, and larger amounts can cause abdominal pain, tremors, tachycardia, convulsions, tachypnea, difficulty breathing, cardiac arrhythmia, and coma. All parts of the tulip plant are poisonous to cats, while the bulb is especially dangerous. A veterinarian should be contacted immediately if a cat has ingested tulip. In the American East, white-tailed deer eat tulips with no apparent ill effects.\nHumans generally do not eat tulip bulbs, as they are slow to cultivate and safe preparation practices are not widely known. Although they resemble onions and are occasionally cooked as such, this has led to illness. In the Netherlands they were used as an ersatz ingredient and poverty food during the famine of 1944–45, and some chefs continue to offer them as a delicacy. Removal of the germ (the young stem) is an important preparation step. People who handle tulip bulbs extensively can develop contact dermatitis, known as \"tulip fingers\", caused by the defensive chemical tulipalin A. The petals are edible to humans, as are the leaves, although some people are allergic.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip" }, "tulipa-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "While members of the Liliaceae s.s. have been used as food sources in humans, the bulbs of some species are poisonous to household pets (bulb toxicosis) if eaten and may cause serious complications, such as kidney failure in cats from Lilies, particularly Lilium longiflorum (Easter Lily). Dogs may develop less serious effects such as gastrointestinal problems and central nervous system depression. Most Fritillaria (e.g. F. imperialis, F. meleagris) bulbs contain poisonous neurotoxic alkaloids such as imperialin (peiminine), which may be deadly if ingested in quantity, while other species such as Fritillaria camschatcensis and Fritillaria affinis are edible. Tulips can cause skin irritation due to the presence of tuliposides and tulipalins, which are also found in the flowers, leaves and stems of Fritillaria. These are also toxic to a variety of animals.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liliaceae" }, "veratrum-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Veratrum plants contain highly toxic steroidal alkaloids (e.g. veratridine) that activate sodium ion channels and cause potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias if ingested. The teratogenic steroid Cyclopamine is also found in these plants and is known to induce holoprosencephaly in farm animals. All parts of these plants are poisonous, with the roots and rhizomes being the most poisonous. If ingested, symptoms, which typically occur between thirty minutes and four hours, include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, numbness, headache, sweating, muscle weakness, bradycardia, hypotension, cardiac arrhythmia, and seizures. Treatment for poisoning includes gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal followed by supportive care including antiemetics for persistent nausea and vomiting, along with atropine for treatment of bradycardia and fluid replacement and vasopressors for the treatment of hypotension.\nThe toxic alkaloids are only produced during active growth, and are degraded and metabolized during the winter months. Native Americans harvested their roots for medicinal purposes during their dormant period.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veratrum" }, "vicia-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The vetches grown as forage are generally toxic to non-ruminants (such as humans), at least if eaten in quantity. Cattle and horses have been poisoned by V. villosa and V. benghalensis, two species that contain canavanine in their seeds. Canavanine, a toxic analogue of the amino acid arginine, has been identified in Hairy Vetch as an appetite suppressant for monogastric animals, while Narbon bean contains the quicker-acting but weaker γ-glutamyl-S-ethenylcysteine. In common vetch, γ-glutamyl-β-cyanoalanine has been found. The active part of this molecule is β-cyanoalanine. It inhibits the conversion of the sulfur amino acid methionine to cysteine.\nCystathionine, an intermediary product of this biochemical pathway, is secreted in urine. This process can effectively lead to the depletion of vital protective reserves of the sulfur amino acid cysteine and thereby making Vicia sativa seed a dangerous component in mixture with other toxin sources. The Spanish pulse mix comuña contains common vetch and bitter vetch in addition to vetchling (Lathyrus cicera) seeds; it can be fed in small quantities to ruminants, but its use as a staple food will cause lathyrism even in these animals. Moreover, common vetch as well as broad bean – and probably other species of Vicia too – contain oxidants like convicine, isouramil, divicine and vicine in quantities sufficient to lower glutathione levels in G6PD-deficient persons to cause favism disease. At least broad beans also contain the lectin phytohemagglutinin and are somewhat poisonous if eaten raw. Split common vetch seeds resemble split red lentils (Vicia lens), and has been occasionally mislabelled as such by exporters or importers to be sold for human consumption.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicia" }, "vinca-rosea": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "C. roseus can be extremely toxic if consumed orally by humans, and is cited (under its synonym Vinca rosea) in the Louisiana State Act 159. All parts of the plant are poisonous. On consumption, symptoms consist of mild stomach cramps, cardiac complications, hypotension, systematic paralysis eventually leading to death.\nAccording to French botanist Pierre Boiteau, its poisonous properties are made known along generations of Malagasy people as a poison consumed in ordeal trials, even before the tangena fruit was used. This lent the flower one of its names vonenina, from Malagasy: vony nenina meaning \"flower of remorse\".", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinca_rosea" }, "wisteria-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant contain a saponin called wisterin, which is toxic if ingested, and may cause dizziness, confusion, speech problems, nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, diarrhea and collapse. There is debate over whether the concentration outside of the seeds is sufficient to cause poisoning. Some Japanese sources assure that parts of the W. floribunda can be eaten at certain stages if prepared properly and in moderate amounts: young shoots and leaves may be eaten after blanching or boiling before serving with rice or fried while seeds may be consumable if harvested between July to September when they are not bitter. Nevertheless, wisteria seeds outside that caveat have caused cases of poisoning in children and pets of many countries, producing mild to severe gastroenteritis and other effects.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisteria" }, "xanthium-strumarium": { "heading": "Toxic or medicinal phytochemistry", "text": "The plant may have some medicinal properties and has been used in traditional medicine in South Asia and traditional Chinese medicine. In Telugu, this plant is called Marula Matangi.\nHowever, while small quantities of parts of the mature plants may be consumed, the seeds and seedlings should not be eaten in large quantities because they contain significant concentrations of the extremely toxic chemical carboxyatractyloside. The mature plant also contains at least four other toxins.\n\nAnimals have also been known to die after eating the plants.\nA patient consuming a traditional Chinese medicine containing cocklebur called Cang Er Zi Wan (苍耳子丸) developed muscle spasms.\nIt was responsible for at least 19 deaths and 76 illnesses in Sylhet District, Bangladesh, 2007. People ate large amounts of the plants, locally called ghagra shak, because they were starving during a monsoon flood and no other plants were available. The symptoms included vomiting and altered mental states, followed by unconsciousness.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthium_strumarium" }, "zamia-furfuracea": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "All parts of the plant contain Cycasin and an unknown nervous system toxin which are poisonous to animals, including humans. The seeds are poisonous enough to kill small mammals such as dogs and cats, and cause liver and kidney failure, as well as eventual paralysis in humans. Dehydration sets in very quickly. No treatment for the poisoning is currently known.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamia_furfuracea" }, "zamia-integrifolia": { "heading": "Edibility and toxicity", "text": "Indigenous tribes of Florida like the Seminole and Tequesta ground the root and soaked it overnight; afterwards, they rinsed it with running water for several hours to remove the rest of the water-soluble toxin cycasin. The resulting paste was then left to ferment before being dried into a powder. The resulting powder could then be used to make a bread-like substance. By the late 1880s, several mills in the Miami area started to produce Florida arrowroot until their demise after World War I.\nSeeds generally fall close to the parent plant, although about five percent of seeds are found more than four meters away. Some authors believe that birds and small mammals are responsible for that dispersal. While such behavior has not been observed, marks on seeds, and the location of seeds under shrubs where birds perch and small mammals shelter indicate that the seeds have been carried there. The size of the seeds probably restricts how far birds can carry seeds.\n\nThe whole plant, except for the sarcotesta, the pulpy covering of the seeds, is very toxic, containing a toxin called cycasin which can cause liver failure that can lead to death, but if proper precautions are taken it can be leached with water due to it being a water-soluble molecule. The seeds also contain a toxic glycoside which causes headaches, vomiting, stomach pains and diarrhoea if ingested, and Beta-methylamino-alanine, which can cause central nervous system failure.", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamia_integrifolia" }, "zamia-spp": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "The primary toxin in Zamia plants is cycasin, a carcinogenic and neurotoxic glucoside. Other glucoside toxins present include macrozamin (de) and several neocycasins. BMAA, a neurotoxin that is produced by cyanobacteria living in roots of the plants, is also present in most Zamia plants.\nMany of the Zamia species are, or have been, gathered to process the stem and/or seeds into starch for use as food or laundry starch, or for use as traditional medicine. Since almost the entire plant is very toxic, the starch must be grated and repeatedly washed to remove the toxins and make the starch edible. Only the sarcotesta, the pulpy covering of the seeds, is relatively free of toxins.\nConsumption of cycads by livestock has resulted in two forms of cycad toxicosis. Hepato-gastrointestinal toxicosis results from damage to the liver and gastrointestinal tracts of affected animals causing depression, anorexia, and weight loss. Neurologic toxicosis, known as Zamia staggers, is the result of damage to brain, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglia tissue causing weight loss, swaying of hind quarters, and weakness and other defects in rear limbs.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamia" }, "zigadenus-venenosus": { "heading": "Toxicity", "text": "Toxicoscordion venenosum has a well-deserved poisonous reputation. The main toxic alkaloid contained in the plants is zygacine, but other esters of zygadenine develop in the plant as the seed pods ripen. While they are not easily confused with other species while in bloom they can easily be mistaken for edible bulbs like those of the camas lily in the Pacific Northwest once the leaves and flowering stems have faded. As few as two bulbs are sufficient to kill a fully-grown human, with the poisons not degraded by cooking. The toxins also remain stable when dried and stored, with bulbs remaining toxic for two decades after collection. The seeds and the bulbs are the most toxic parts of the plants. A survivor of poisoning said of the experience, \"My mouth got tingly, and later the sensation moved down my throat.\"\nHuman poisonings are rare. Symptoms of poisoning are numerous. The first symptom is watering of the mouth followed by numbness of the lips and mouth. Other possible gastric symptoms include thirst, nausea, stomach pain, vomiting, and diarrhea. Circulatory, nervous, and muscular symptoms may include a headache, muscular weakness, confusion, slow and/or irregular heartbeat, low blood pressure, below normal temperature, difficulty breathing, convulsions, or coma. In severe cases, the coma can lead to death. The onset of symptoms ranges from one to eight hours after consumption. Meadow death camas has been mistaken for a number of edible bulb species including blue camas, wild onions, and mariposa lily.\nThe plant is also deadly to livestock, with sheep being most commonly poisoned. However, pigs are reported to vomit the plant and avoid being fatally poisoned. The lethal dose of green plant material is between 0.6% and 6.0% of an animal's body weight.", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicoscordion_venenosum" } }